Modeling Phonological Core Deficit within Working Memory in Family Genetics Study of Dyslexia Word Form Storage (phonological*, orthographic*, morphological*) Phonological Loop (time-sensitive coordination of phonological codes) [RAN]* Executive Functions for phonological processes (Inhibition and Supervisory Attention* [RAS switching attention]) Berninger et al. (2006) Scientific Studies in Reading * PAL II has measure.

PAL II Working Memory Model for Reading and Writing Assessment and Instruction For dysgraphia, orthographic coding and sequential hand movements— the orthographic loop--are critical.

For dyslexia, focus on 3 word forms, phonological loop, and executive functions. PAL II Working Memory Assessment-Instruction Model

For OWL LD, focus on syntactic and morphological awareness and word finding strategies + all working memory components. PALII Working Memory Assessment-Instruction Model

Tier 3: Dyslexia Can Be Differentiated from Other Specific Learning Disabilities Affecting Written Language Scientifically supported diagnosis is as important as scientifically supported instruction. 3 Research-Supported Specific Written Language Disabilities: Dysgraphia, Dyslexia, Oral and Written Language Learning Disability (OWL LD) Require scientifically supported assessment and diagnosis by qualified psychologists and speech and language specialists. Behavioral expression can vary across development. May have common and unique genetic and neurological bases; effective treatment shares some common instructional components but also requires unique instructional components.

Relationship between Word Form Deficit in Working Memory and Diagnosis PAL II User Guide Morphological/Syntax Phonological, Orthographic Phonological, Orthographic Ortho- graphic  Dysgraphia  Dyslexia  Oral and Written Language Learning Disability (OWL LD)

Dysgraphia  Problem in handwriting automaticity—retrieving and producing legible letters effortlessly and fast,  Problem in spelling with or without indicators of dyslexia,  Problem in finger motor planning, and/or  Problems in executive functions for self-regulating the composing process (fluency and quality). Note: Handwriting problems may not show IQ-achievement discrepancy but spelling and composing do. Typically those with dysgraphia do not qualify for occupational therapy services. Those who do have severe motor problems have handwriting problems for other reasons and also require treatment specialized for specific motor problems.

phonological Phonological & ORTHOGRAPHIC LOOP and Executive Functions in Working Memory morphological ORTHOGRAPHIC Teach Phonological and Working Memory Skills Explicitly Specialized Instruction for Dysgraphia

Instruction for Dysgraphia Teach plan for letter formation (study numbered component strokes in model letter form) -- overcomes sequential finger movement problem Cover letter and hold letter form in working memory for increasing duration (photographic leprechaun) Write letter from memory and compare to model. Revise if necessary.

Instruction for Dysgraphia Only practice each of 26 letters once in session “writers’ warm-up (avoid habituation, all letters equal opportunity to become automatic) Always name letter at each stage (study, cover, see in mind’s eye in memory, write from memory, and compare to model)—facilitates retrieval fluency Always teach for transfer—follow letter writing practice with composing on a teacher-provided prompt and share writing with peers (communication of ideas)

Dyslexia  Problems in accuracy and rate of oral reading of words and text and pseudowords and/or spelling  Skills above discrepant from Verbal Comprehension Index (Verbal IQ) and below population mean.  Language (except for phonology) is a relative strength that can mask severe problems in working memory that are invisible without assessment.  Processing deficits in orthographic, phonological, RAN, and executive functions (Inhibition and RAS).  Writing as well as reading disability because spelling problems, which tend to persist beyond the reading problems, shown to be linked to written composition.  Reading problems may resolve in elementary grades but writing problems persist and these students need explicit instruction in writing and reading-writing integration K -12 (and not just accommodations).

phonological Phonological & Orthographic Loops and Executive Functions in Working Memory morphological orthographic Teach Phonological and Working Memory Skills Explicitly Specialized Instruction for Dyslexics

Teach phonological awareness of syllables, phonemes, and rimes Four games played to develop syllable segmentation skills: Find the Hidden Is ant hidden in can’t? in Andy? Say the Missing Say carelessly. Now say lessly. What is missing? Say the Word Without Say friendliness. Now say it without ness. Substitute Say garden. Now don’t say it with den, say it with ter.

Phonological Lessons Four games played to develop phoneme segmentation skills: Find the HiddenDoes the word begin with /m/ as in mother? make? time? Say the Missing Sat mice. Now say ice. What is missing? Say the Word Without Say wave. Now say it without /w/. Substitute Say sad. Now say it with /h/ instead of /s/.

Teach Awareness of Orthographic and Morphological Word Form and Parts Play Looking Games to develop careful looking at and analysis of written words and their constituent letters. Play Morphological Awareness Games (e.g. word building, word dissection, word sorts etc.)

Teach to Overcome Working Memory Limitations Right balance between reflection (linguistic awareness of phonology, orthography, and morphology) and automaticity using instructional principles based on the grammar of teaching and learning (procedural-- not just declarative– knowledge). Teach to all levels of language close in time for student’s developmental level (developmental milestones for written language learning). Avoid habitation by changing nature of activities frequently (but cover same skills in a predictable fashion across lessons). Less can be more!

1 st grade Reading (Berninger et al., 2000, Developmental Neuropsychology) Alphabetic Principle in Isolation teach automatic spelling- phoneme correspondences as procedural knowledge + Teach Transfer of That to Decoding Monosyllabic Word Context by Modeling, + Reading Text for Meaning (Oral Discussion) and Fluency (Rereading); Teach strategies for decoding when reading independently. Progress Monitoring: Taught and Transfer Words

2 nd grade reading (Berninger et al., 2002, Learning Disability Quarterly) Teach Phonological Awareness and Orthographic Awareness of syllables in polysyllabic words and inflectional morphemes + Automatic Alphabetic Principle + Transfer of these to Decoding Polysyllabic Words + Comprehension Strategies such as summarization and Teacher Guided Cueing of all Levels of Language (word, sentence, discourse)

Grades 2 to 4 (Berninger, 2000 LDQ; Berninger et., 2004 LSHSS, 2006b JLD; S. Abbott & Berninger, 1999; Carlisle & Rice, 2004) 2 nd Grade teaching application of alphabetic principle to reading structure/function and content words, oral reading fluency, and word, sentence, and text reading comprehension. 3 rd Grade phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness, decoding words of Latinate and Greek as well as Anglo Saxon origin, reading fluency, and reading comprehension.

OWL LD Who are the children who are low in oral reading and spelling but do not show IQ achievement discrepancy? Extremely impaired in morphological and syntactic awareness and often word retrieval Also impaired in all the working memory components that children with dyslexia are Fast responders to phonics but persisting real word reading and reading comprehension problems

Oral Language + Written Language Disability (OWL LD) Problems in decoding, reading words, oral reading fluency, and/or reading comprehension  Problems in writing (spelling + syntax)  Typically no IQ-achievement discrepancy based on Full Scale (or Verbal IQ)  But substantial oral language problems in phonological, morphological, and syntactic awareness and often word retrieval that require treatment.  Struggle in learning oral language and then in using oral language to (a) learn from teacher talk and (b) learn written language.

Both OWL LD and Dyslexics in Early Intervention Slower Responders ¾ Consistent Profile at Beginning and End of 2 nd gr Faster Responders Average Diff Text > Word 46% Begin 11.5 End 14.0 Word > Text 29% Begin 14.2 End 16.7 Slower Responders Average Diff Word > Text 60% Begin 19.6 End 23.3 Text > Word 13% Begin 27.3 End 28.7 Text=Gates MaGinitie Reading Comprehension Word=WRMT-R Word Identification

phonological Phonological & Orthographic Loops and Executive Functions in Working Memory morphological orthographic Teach Phonological and Working Memory Skills Explicitly Specialized Instruction for OWL LD syntax

Instruction for OWL LD Activities that develop morphological and syntactic awareness Activities that develop word finding and retrieval Explicit strategies for reading comprehension ***We need more randomized, controlled studies of effective instruction for OWL LD.

Teach with Focus on Overcoming Timing Limitations of Working Memory Teach alphabetic principle by phonological loop (eye to MOUTH to ear) and by orthographic loop (ear to HAND to eye) close in time. Combine sensory and MOTOR to develop written LANGUAGE. To date, ONLY THIS APPROACH was associated with normalization of working memory (fMRI connectivity emanating from middle frontal gyrus) in UW studies.