Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research Chapter Two: Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research

Agenda Distinguish Between Theory and Research Summarize Main Points of Influential Theories Discuss Significant Research Projects Review Research Methodologies

Distinction Between Theory and Research Theories are the intellectual structure (assumptions, principles, methods) for understanding sexuality Research helps answer questions about human sexuality Many disciplines conduct research in sexuality, varying in the questions asked and scientific approaches taken

Theories of Human Sexuality

Theories About Sexuality Many theories guide our thoughts about human sexuality Psychological Biological Evolutionary Sociological Feminist Queer Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives

Psychological Theories Psychoanalytic Theory Behavioral Theory Social Learning Theory Cognitive Theory Humanistic Theory

Psychological: Psychoanalytic Theory Freud (1856-1939) Most influential psychological theory of sexuality Sex drive is a very important life force Two controversial concepts: Personality Formation Psychosexual Development

Fact that Might Only Interest Me Karen Horney was a psychoanalytic therapist who trained with Freud. In response to Freud’s assertion that women demonstrated “penis envy”, she suggested that men had “womb envy” because they are preoccupied with sexual intercourse.

Psychological: Behavioral Theory Only study overt behavior; ignore internal states Operant conditioning (Skinner) reinforcement punishment Behavior modification – tool to change unwanted behavior Aversion therapy

Psychological: Social Learning Theory Bandura Basis in operant conditioning Also consider internal events in affecting behavior Identification and imitation of same-sex parent in development of our gender identity Peer pressure influence on our sexuality

Psychological: Cognitive Theory Individual differences in processing information Behavior is a result of our perceptions and conceptualizations of our environment Largest sex organ – the brain We are sexually aroused by what we think is sexually arousing

Psychological: Humanistic Theory Self-actualization – we try to be the best we can become Unconditional positive regard allows us to become self-actualized

Biological Theory Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology, genetics

Evolutionary Theory Combination of evolution and sociology Sexuality serves to reproduce Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes Double standard

Sociological Theory Sexual expression varies across societies Institutions influence rules societies hold regarding the expression of sexuality Family Religion Economy Medicine Law Media

Feminist Theory Sexology is dominated by white, middle-class, heterosexist attitudes Sexuality research is based on male sexuality Social construction of sexuality based on power, historically held by men Women as passive and submissive Sexuality used by men to maintain power over women Lack research on female orgasm, satisfaction

Queer Theory Heterosexism and homophobia should be resisted Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else deviant Sexual categories are cultural constructions that limit and restrain

Class Exercise Choose any topic associated with human sexuality. How would the topic be explained from the Psychological perspective (choose one psychological theory)? Biological perspective? Evolutionary perspective? Sociological perspective? Feminist Perspective? Queer Perspective? Discuss points of Agreement Disagreement

Sexuality Research

Recent Sexuality Research Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality research Prompted by HIV/AIDS Primarily “problem-driven” research, not healthy sexuality Pressure from conservative groups Multiple disciplines studying sex has fragmented research

Recent Sexuality Research Popular media sensationalizes and distorts information Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician specializing in sexuality; usually PhD Researchers feel pressure to research select topics and avoid others Academic programs specializing in human sexuality; need steady funding

National Health and Social Life Survey Landmark Research Kinsey Masters & Johnson The Janus Report National Health and Social Life Survey

Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality Research Begins in the U.S. Most influential modern sexuality researcher Atheoretical in the beginning because data on sexuality was lacking He and 3 colleagues interviewed 18,000 subjects to obtain sexual life histories Preferred use of 100% sampling 1947, established the Institute for Sex Research

Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality Research Begins in the U.S. 1948: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male 1953: Sexual Behavior in the Human Female Found many unacceptable activities to be widely practiced Controversial work; had funding sources taken away

Sexuality Research in the United States Masters & Johnson: In 1954, began to study the anatomy and physiology of intercourse in the laboratory Electrocardiograph Electromyograph Penile strain gauges Photoplethysmographs

Sexuality Research in the United States Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Response (1966) Four stage model Women may have multiple orgasms Sexuality stays with us as we age Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970) Vaginal orgasms from clitoral stimulation

Sexuality Research in the United States: Homosexuality Few large-scale studies Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not differentiate gay and straight males Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978) majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to stereotypes aren’t sexual predators homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate relationships

Sexuality Research in the United States The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample National Health and Social Life Survey, Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994): Surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes

Class Exercise Earlier, I noted that research is primarily “problem-driven” research, noting that there has been limited research about healthy sexuality. Why do you think there has been more attention to problems than healthy sexuality? Identify research topics that would be associated with “healthy sexuality.”

Research Methodology

Sex Research Methods and Considerations Validity – measuring what it is designed to Reliability – consistency Generalizability/Random Samples

Sex Research Methods and Considerations Case study – individual cases explored to form hypotheses Questionnaire – self-report attitudes, behavior, knowledge anonymity Interview – researcher records attitudes, behavior, knowledge rapport, flexibility, expensive

Sex Research Methods and Considerations Direct Observation – focus on behaviors difficult to find subjects in sexuality research; expensive Participant Observation – researchers monitor within a natural environment much sexual behavior is in private

Sex Research Methods and Considerations Experimental Method – establish cause and effect due to increased control Random assignment Independent variable – manipulated Dependent variable – measured Costly, artificial, results may not relate to the real world; ethical constraints

Sex Research Methods and Considerations Correlations – describes a relationship between variables Used when experiments are not possible Cannot establish cause and effect

Problems and Issues in Sex Research Ethical Issues – informed consent, confidentiality Volunteer Bias – there are differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers; can’t generalize Sampling Problems – samples of convenience (college students); generalizability questioned Reliability – changes over time; memory

Class Exercise Earlier you identified topics associated with healthy sexuality. What methodology (or multiple methodologies) would you use to study this topic? Are there ethical problems? How would you recruit participants?

Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research Need for financial support Congressional and religious opposition Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for funding “Scientific underground” Many unexplored topics within human sexuality Future direction to understand emotional and relational aspects