1. Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research Chapter 2

2. Chapter 2 Outline Theories About Sexuality Psychological theories
Psychoanalytic theory
Behavioral theory
Social learning theory
Cognitive theory
Humanistic theory
Evolutionary theory
Biological theory
Sociological theories
Feminist theory
Queer theory
Broad overview of contents

3. Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.)
Sexuality Research: Philosophers, Physicians, and Sexologists
Early sex research
Recent studies on sexuality
Politics and sex research
Sexuality Research
Early promoters of sexology
Sexuality research moves to the U.S.
Research studies on homosexuality
Other sexuality studies
Age-specific studies: teens and seniors

4. Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.)
Sex Research Methods and Considerations
Case studies
Questionnaires versus interviews
Direct observation
Participant observation
Experimental methods
Correlations

5. Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.)
Problems and Issues in Sex Research
Ethical issues
Volunteer bias
Samplings problems
Reliability
Sexuality Research Across Cultures
Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research

6. Theory and Research
Theories are the intellectual structure (assumptions, principles, methods) for understanding sexuality
Research helps answer questions about human sexuality
Many disciplines conduct research in sexuality, varying in the questions asked and scientific approaches taken

7. Theories About Sexuality
Many theories guide our thoughts about human sexuality
Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives

8. Sigmund Freud ( ), the father of psychoanalysis, set the stage for all other psychological theories.

9. Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud ( )
Most influential psychological theory of sexuality
Sex drive is a very important life force
Two controversial concepts:
Personality formation
Psychosexual development

10. Personality Formation
Two drives (motivations):
Libido – life or sexual motivation
Thanatos – death or aggressiveness motivation
Two divisions to personality:
Three levels of operation
conscious, preconscious, unconscious
Three guiding identities
id, ego, superego

11. Levels of Operation Conscious – information in awareness
Preconscious – information within recall, but not in awareness
Unconscious – inaccessible, the most important level of operation

12. Guiding Identities Id – seeks immediate satisfaction
Ego – operates in reality; balances id and superego
Superego – values & restrictions; conscience
Psychoanalysis required if ego does not balance id and superego
Psychoanalysis brings unconscious thoughts into consciousness

13. Psychosexual Development
Basic personality formed within the first six years of life
Stages of development
Corresponding erogenous zones where libidinal energy is directed
Unsuccessful progression through each stage could result in fixation
Fixation occurs when libidinal energy is caught in that stage’s zone

14. Psychosexual Stages of Development
Stage (time period): Zone
Oral (0-18 months): Mouth
Anal (18 months-3 years): Anus
Phallic (3-6 years): Genitals (Penis/Clitoris)
Boys: Oedipus complex, castration anxiety
Girls: Electra complex, penis envy
Latency (6 years-puberty): None
Genital (puberty-death): Genitals
No fixations resulted in a heterosexual adult

15. Behavioral Theory Only study overt behavior; ignore internal states
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
reinforcement
punishment
Behavior modification – tool to change unwanted behavior
Aversion therapy

16. Social Learning Theory
Bandura
Basis in operant conditioning
Also consider internal events in affecting behavior
Identification and imitation of same-sex parent in development of our gender identity
Peer pressure influence on our sexuality

17. Cognitive Theory Individual differences in processing information
Behavior is a result of our perceptions and conceptualizations of our environment
Largest sex organ – the brain
We are sexually aroused by what we think is sexually arousing

18. Humanistic Theory
Self-actualization – we try to be the best we can become
Unconditional positive regard allows us to become self-actualized

19. Biological Theory
Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology, genetics
Sexual problems due to physiological causes; interventions include medications or surgery

20. Evolutionary Theory Combination of evolution and sociology
Sexuality serves mainly to reproduce
Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes
Consider mater preferences from an evolutionary perspective

21. Sociological Theory Sexual expression varies across societies
Institutions influence rules societies hold regarding the expression of sexuality
Family
Religion
Economy
Medicine
Law
Media

22. Feminist Theory
Sexology is dominated by white, middle-class, heterosexist attitudes
Sexuality research is based on male sexuality
Social construction of sexuality based on power, historically held by men
Women as passive and submissive
Sexuality used by men to maintain power over women
Lack research on female orgasm, satisfaction

23. Queer Theory Heterosexism and homophobia should be resisted
Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else deviant
Sexual categories are cultural constructions that limit and restrain

24. Early Sexuality Research
Variety of disciplines
Focus on abnormal and unhealthy practices
Victorian period (19th century) suspended sexuality research until physicians made it an appropriate topic as related to medicine
Primarily studied in Europe

25. Early Sexuality Research (Cont.)
Early 20th century it earned legitimacy with Freud, Ellis, and Bloch
Moved to the United States in 1920s, encouraged by the social hygiene movement
Limited funding for research

26. Recent Sexuality Research
Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality research
Prompted by HIV/AIDS
Primarily “problem-driven” research, not healthy sexuality
Pressure from conservative groups
Multiple disciplines studying sex has fragmented research

27. Recent Sexuality Research (Cont.)
Popular media sensationalizes and distorts information
Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician specializing in sexuality; usually PhD
Researchers feel pressure to research select topics and avoid others
Academic programs specializing in human sexuality; need steady funding

28. Politics and Sex Research
Sexuality research changes with the political climate
Changing roles of women, development of birth control pills, and Kinsey’s work led to less acceptance for the double standard
HIV/AIDS crisis provided a new opportunity for sex research
Political resistance even today

29. Early Promoters of Sexology
Bloch ( ): Published the Journal of Sexology beginning 1914
Moll ( ): In 1913, began the International Society for Sex Research; authored sexology books
Hirschfeld ( ): Worked to better the treatment of homosexuals and bisexuals; developed an Institute for Sexology

30. Early Promoters of Sexology (Cont.)
Krafft-Ebing ( ): Sexual pathology
Ellis ( ): Published six-volume work on sexuality; refuted deviance of homosexuality and masturbation
All early researchers legitimized the study of sexuality
Findings lacked consistency and organization

31. Sexuality Research Moves to the United States
Mosher ( ): First to ask Americans about their sexual behavior; helped married women have better sex lives
Bement Davis ( ): Prostitution and STIs; homosexuality is not abnormal

32. Katharine Bement Davis (1861 – 1935) conducted some of the largest and most comprehensive sexuality studies to date.

33. Sexuality Research Moves to the United States (Cont.)
Kinsey ( ): Most influential modern sexuality researcher
Atheoretical in the beginning because data on sexuality was lacking
He and 3 colleagues interviewed 18,000 subjects to obtain sexual life histories
Preferred use of 100% sampling
1947, established the Institute for Sex Research

34. Sexuality Research Moves to the United States (Cont.)
Kinsey
1948: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male
1953: Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
Found many unacceptable activities to be widely practiced
Controversial work; had funding sources taken away

35. Alfred Kinsey ( ) implemented the first large-scale survey of adult sexual behavior in the United States.

36. Sexuality Research in the United States (Cont.)
Hunt: Playboy Foundation study of American sexual behaviors (1974); volunteer bias prevents generalizability
Masters & Johnson: In 1954, began to study the anatomy and physiology of intercourse in the laboratory
Electrocardiograph
Electromyograph
Penile strain gauges
Photoplethysmographs

37. Virginia Johnson and William Masters were the first to bring sexuality into the laboratory.

38. To measure physiological changes during sexual arousal, researches rely on strain gauges and photoplethysmographs. A penile strain gauge is placed on the base of the penis to measure erectile changes in the penis, while a photoplethysmograph is inserted in the vaginal canal to measure changes I vaginal lubrication.

39. Sexuality Research in the United States (Cont.)
Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Response (1966)
Four stage model
Women may have multiple orgasms
Sexuality stays with us as we age
Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970)
Vaginal orgasms from clitoral stimulation

40. Research Studies Homosexuality
Few large-scale studies
Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not differentiate gay and straight males
Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978)
majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to stereotypes
aren’t sexual predators
homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate relationships

41. Dr. Evelyn Hooker published the first empirical study to challenge the psychiatric view that homosexuality was a mental illness. Her work ultimately led to the removal of homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

42. Research Studies Homosexuality
The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample
National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS): Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994); surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes

43. Age-Specific Studies: Teens and Seniors
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2002)
National Survey of Adolescent Males (2002)
Seniors
Starr & Weiner (1981): Sexuality still important for seniors
Love, Sex, and Aging (1984)

44. Sex Research Methods and Considerations
Case study – thorough examination of one or few participants
Validity – accuracy of measurement
Reliability – consistency of measurement
Generalizability – ability of sample to be applicable to the population

45. Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.)
Case studies – individual cases explored to form hypotheses; Freud
Questionnaires versus interviews – self-report attitudes, behavior, knowledge; Kinsey
Anonymity
Direct observation – focus on behaviors; Masters and Johnson
difficult to find subjects in sexuality research; expensive

46. Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.)
Participant observation – researchers monitor within a natural environment; research conducted in a bar; much sexual behavior is in private
Experimental method – establish cause and effect due to increased control
Random assignment
Independent variable – manipulated
Dependent variable – measured
Costly, artificial, results may not relate to the real world; ethical constraints

47. Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.)
Correlations – describes a relationship between variables
Used when experiments are not possible
Cannot establish cause and effect

48. Problems and Issues in Sex Research
Ethical Issues – informed consent, confidentiality
Volunteer Bias – there are differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers; poor generalizability
Sampling Problems – samples of convenience (college students); generalizability questioned
Reliability – changes over time; memory

49. Sexuality Research Across Cultures
Human Sexual Behaviors (1971) – one of the largest cultural studies
Many commonalities, differences
Analyse des Comportements Sexuels en France (1992) and NHSLS (2001) compared sexual behavior in France and the U.S.
Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors (2002) – 1st global examination of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, satisfaction

50. Figure 2.2 Do you engage in sex at least weekly?

51. Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research
Need for financial support
Congressional and religious opposition
Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for funding
Many sex researchers work in a “Scientific underground”
Many unexplored topics within human sexuality
Future direction to understand emotional and relational aspects