Psychological Foundation Theories

What is Learning ?  “a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from practice.” (Atkinson et al 1993).Atkinson et al 1993  Learning is acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, preferences or understanding, and may involve synthesizing different types of information.

Learning categories  Through Säljö (1979) research, learning fell into five main categories:  Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge.  Learning as memorizing.  Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods.  Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning.  Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way.

Psychology Learning Theories Instructional Design Cognitive TheoriesInstruction TheoryConstructivism Situated Learning Theories Behavioral Learning Theories

The process / flow.. Psychological Theories Learning process & outcomes Effective Instructional Design CognitiveBehavioralInstructionalSituatedConstructivism ID Designer Designing

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral Perspective Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning Theory Behaviorism: John B. Watson Behaviorism Edward L. Thorndike Connectivism Edwin Guthrie Contiguity Theory B. F. Skinner Operant Conditioning William Kaye Estes Stimulus Sampling Theory Neo-behaviorism: Edward C. Tolman Sign Theory & Latent Learning Clark Hull Drive Reduction Theory Keneth W. Spence Discrimination Learning

Behavioral Perspective categorize the unconditioned stimulus / response and conditioned stimulus / response unconditioned stimulus / response and Eg : Dog salivate (salivate unconditioned respond) when they eat (food – unconditioned stimulus) conditioned stimulus / response Eg : Bell rang (bell unconditioned stimulus) and dog salivate (salivate unconditioned respond) Classical Conditioning: Stimulus/ Response is more concerned with behavior than with thinking, feeling, or knowing. It focuses on the objective and observable components of behavior. The behaviorist theories all share some version of stimulus-response mechanisms for learningstimulus-response Behaviorism: Stimulus, Response, Reinforcement The neo-behaviorists, then, were a transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning. Neo behaviorism: Stimulus-Response; Intervening Internal Variables; Purposive Behavior

Behavioral Learning Theories  The behavioral learning theory generated by B.F Skinner that is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in behavior.  Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment.

B.F Skinner

 Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania to Grace and William Skinner  He was an American psychologist, author, inventor, social philosopher, and poet.  Skinner received a PhD from Harvard in 1931, and remained there as a researcher until 1936.

B.F Skinner  He then taught at the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis and later at Indiana University, where he was chair of the psychology department from 1946– 1947, before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in  In 1948, he joined the psychology department at Harvard University where he remained for the rest of his life

B.F Skinner  He became one of the leader of behaviorism and his work contributed immensely to experimental psychology.  He also invented the “Skinner BOX”, in which a rat learn to obtain food by pressing a lever

Operant Conditioning BF Skinner

Operant Conditioning  As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivation could not be used to explain behavior  He suggested to look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.  Skinner used the term “operant” to refer to any active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences

Operant Conditioning  Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through  rewards / reinforcement and  punishments for behavior.  Through operant conditioning, an association is made between  a behavior and  a consequence for that behavior

Examples of Operant Conditioning Increasing Behavior Decreasing Behavior  We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us in increasing the behavior  Children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher  We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us in increasing the behavior  Children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher  Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease the behavior by removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment  The children are required to attend the retention class if they did not completed their homework  Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease the behavior by removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment  The children are required to attend the retention class if they did not completed their homework

Operant Conditioning Key Concepts In an attempt to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, the removal of an appetitive stimulus. In an attempt to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, the removal of an aversive stimulus. In an attempt to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, presentation of an aversive stimulus. In an attempt to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, presentation of an appetitive stimulus. + reinforcement + punishment - punishment - reinforceme nt Increase behaviorDecrease behavior Stimulus presentation Stimulus Removal

Operant Conditioning Key Concepts Operant Conditioning Increase Behavior Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Decrease Behavior Positive Punishment Negative Punishment If you stroke a cat's fur in a manner that is pleasing to the cat it will purr. The cat's purring may act as a positive reinforcer, causing you to stroke the cat's fur in the same manner in the future. positive reinforcer When a child says "please" and "thank you" to his/her mother, the child may not have to engage in his/her dreaded chore of setting the table. Therefore, not having to set the table will act as a negative reinforcer and increase the likelihood of the child saying "please" and "thank you" in the future.negative reinforcer If you stroke a cat's fur in a manner that the cat finds unpleasant, the cat may attempt to bite you. Therefore, the presentation of the cat's bite will act as a positive punisher and decrease the likelihood that you will stroke the cat in that same manner in the future positive punisher When a child "talks back" to his/her mother, the child may lose the privilege of watching her favorite television program. Therefore, the loss of viewing privileges will act as a negative punisher and decrease the likelihood of the child talking back in the future.negative punisher

Skinner Box B.F Skinner

Skinner Box  A Skinner Box is a often small chamber that is used to conduct operant conditioning research with animals  It is an experimental environment that is better suited to examine the more natural flow of behavior.  B.F Skinner became famous for his work with rats using his “Skinner Box” (is also referred to as an operant conditioning chamber).

Skinner Box  Within the chamber, there is usually a lever (for rats) or a key (for pigeons) that an individual animal can operate to obtain a food or water within the chamber as a reinforcer.  The chamber is connected to electronic equipment that records the animal's lever pressing or key pecking, thus allowing for the precise quantification of behavior.

Skinner Box A Skinner box typically contains one or more levers which an animal can press, one or more stimulus lights and one or more places in which reinforcers like food can be deliver The animal’s presses on the levers can be detected and recorded and a contingency between these presses, the state of the stimulus lights and the delivery of the reinforcement can be set up, all automatically.

Schedules of Reinforcement Component Reinforcement component Partial Reinforcement Ratio Reinforcement Fixed ratio schedules Variable ratio schedules Interval Reinforcement Fixed interval Schedules Variables Interval Schedules Continuous Reinforcement reinforcement is given every time they gives the desired response. reinforcement is given only part of the times they gives the desired response. Partial reinforcement is when you're reinforced after a number of the desired behaviors. With interval schedules you're reinforced only after a certain interval of time

Fixed Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Component Ratio Reinforcement Fixed ratio Schedules deliver reinforcement after every specific number of response Fixed interval Schedules deliver reinforcement for the first response after a fixed length of time since the last reinforcement, while premature responses are not reinforced. Variable ratio schedules deliver reinforcement after a random number of responses (based upon a predetermined average) Variable interval Schedules deliver reinforcement for the first response after a random average length of time passes since the last reinforcement

Fixed ratio  Example: every second response is reinforced  Lab example: rat reinforced with food after each 5 bar-presses in a Skinner box.  Real-world example: The student must make three requests using the word “please” before being reinforced. Advantages Builds a high response rate. The higher the ratio, the higher the rate. Advantages Builds a high response rate. The higher the ratio, the higher the rate. Disadvantages An irregular burst of responding can occur if the reinforcement is stopped. Disadvantages An irregular burst of responding can occur if the reinforcement is stopped.

Variable ratio  Example: on average, every third response is reinforced  Lab example: 1 st times 3 times pedal 1 food /2 nd times 5 times 1food / on average, a rat is reinforced for each 10 bar presses  Real world example: The student may be reinforced on the average three requests. Thus, he may be reinforced following four requests using the word “please” or following two appropriate requests. Advantages Because of its unpredictable. Reinforcement schedule, the student’s rate of responding remains essentially constant and resistant to extinction. Advantages Because of its unpredictable. Reinforcement schedule, the student’s rate of responding remains essentially constant and resistant to extinction. Disadvantages Not effective for teaching new behaviors Disadvantages Not effective for teaching new behaviors

Fixed interval  Example: reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second  Lab example: rat is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement  Real world example: After 5 minutes has passed, the teacher reinforces the next request in which the student uses the word “please.” Advantages Ease of implementation Advantages Ease of implementation Disadvantages The student stops performing following the reinforcement and begins to work again just prior to the next reinforcement period Disadvantages The student stops performing following the reinforcement and begins to work again just prior to the next reinforcement period

Variable interval  Example: reinforcement is provided for the first response after an average of 3 seconds since the last reinforcement.  Lab example: rat is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement  Real world example: The student receives reinforcement on the average of every 5 minutes for using the word “please” when making a request. Sometimes the reinforcement occurs after 3 minutes or sometimes after 6 minutes. Advantages Ease of implementation. Because the time intervals are of different lengths, the student never knows which response will be reinforced. This unpredictability creates a steady pattern of responding Advantages Ease of implementation. Because the time intervals are of different lengths, the student never knows which response will be reinforced. This unpredictability creates a steady pattern of responding Disadvantages Not effective for teaching new behaviors Disadvantages Not effective for teaching new behaviors

Conclusion When teaching new skills or behaviors, make sure the student understands what behavior is required to earn the reward. Then, each time he performs the behavior, immediately reinforce him. Timing is everything. The shorter the delay between the behavior and reinforcer, the greater the chance the behavior will be strengthened or increased. In contrast, the longer the delay between the behavior and reinforcer, the greater the risk that another behavior will be inadvertently reinforced.

Reference

 Boeree, D. C. (1998). B. F. SKINNER. Retrieved 2006, from  Brittan Barker, J. K. (n.d.). Glossary of Terms for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Retrieved from mepage.html#home  Cooper, S. (2009 ). Theories of Learning in Educational Psychology. Retrieved 2009, from inc.com/Learningtheories/learningmap.html  Ferguson, T. J. (n.d.). The basic Process of Learning. Retrieved from m  (n.d.). Retrieved from html