The Ethical Aspects of Transgenic Organisms Dennis Cooley Department of History North Dakota State University Supported by a USDA/CSREES/IFAFS grant, “Consortium to Address Social, Economic, and Ethical Aspects of Biotechnology.”

Biotechnology Industry Statistics  There are 1,457 biotechnology companies in the United States, of which 342 are publicly held.  Market capitalization, the total value of publicly traded biotech companies at market prices, was $224 billion as of early May  The biotechnology industry has more than tripled in size since 1992, with revenues increasing from $8 billion in 1992 to $27.6 billion in  The U.S. biotech industry spent $15.6 billion on research and development in

Antibiotics  New antibiotics through genetic modification Many antibiotics that were once highly effective are now proving to be useless as the disease-causing microorganisms develop resistance.  Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance Antibiotics are chemicals produced naturally by microorganisms in the environment that kill, or prevent the growth of other microorganisms.  New antibiotics A soil bacterium – Streptomyces – is a source of antibiotics, immunosuppressants, anti-cancer and anti-parasitic agents, and natural herbicides. It is possible to generate new compounds by changing the blueprint – switching some of the genes, and thus some of the units, around.

Environment  Transgenic foods such as papaya, soybeans and corn are already in the market. Hundreds of biopesticides and other agricultural products are being used to improve the food supply and to reduce our dependence on conventional chemical pesticides.  Ready to enter the market: Wheat in North Dakota

Animal Husbandry  Enzymes, such as amylases and proteases, are being added to animal feed to supplement the animals’ own enzymes and improve digestion. Most animal feedstuffs are plant- derived and contain ‘anti-nutritional factors’ that interfere with digestion in a variety of ways. Many of these factors are non-starch polysaccharides, from cereal grains. Adding enzymes (beta-glucanases and arabinoxylanase) to feedstuffs increases the nutritional value of feeds by breaking down these factors, aiding digestion and making nutrients more easily absorbed. Phytic acid is another anti-nutritional compound found in plant cereals that prevents dietary absorption of essential minerals such as iron and zinc. It also pollutes the environment because it is excreted as phosphorus in manure. Addition of phytase in the diet helps digestion, but until it was recently cloned this enzyme was not available in sufficient quantities for widespread use.pollutes the environment  Enviropigs: Each contains an enzyme in its saliva which helps digest food better and so creates less smell and pollution through its manure.

Cows  New Zealand’s AgResearch, a government-owned research company, put extra copies of the genes for beta-casein and kappa-casein (milk proteins) into laboratory cow cells. The cells were cloned, and then implanted. Nine of the eleven cows born produce milk with 8% to 20% more beta casein and twice as much kappa casein.  Food and Drug Administration has asked that milk or meat from cloned animals not be sold while it develops a policy on such products. ( l?pagew...)

Ethical Aspects  Is biotechnology morally good or bad?  Is working to create biotechnology morally right or wrong?  It depends.

Some Practical Ethical Theories  Reasonable Person Utilitarianism (Do the best you can.): An act is morally right only if a reasonable person would reasonably believe that the utility of the consequences of the act will probably be as great as any alternative to the action at that time.  Quasi-Categorical Imperative (If you do not want it done to you, then do not do it to anyone else AND if it is wrong for everyone to do it, then it is wrong for you to do it): An act is morally right only if in doing the act, the agent does not treat anyone as a mere means.

The Moral Saint Test  Think of an actual person who you who you would like to emulate.  Eliminate the person’s vices.  In your mind, tell the person what you think is the correct solution to moral dilemma. The correct solution must be one that you would do if you were faced with the choice.  If your paradigm would not lose some respect for you, then you know that you probably have selected the correct solution.  If your paradigm would lose some respect for you, then you know that you probably have selected the wrong solution.

Applying the Theory 1.Who is affected by the action? 2.How are those people affected? 3.Which alternative is likely to be the best? 4.Are the mental states, including but not limited to intentions and motives, of the agent(s) performing the actions primarily good?

Applying the Theory  Golden Rice Unethical. RPU – To a reasonable person, the outcome did not reasonably appear to be the best that could have been done. QCI – The desires of the individuals who were to benefit were not consulted.

Applying the Theory  Pharmaceutical companies now use genetic engineering to produce large quantities of insulin for diabetics around the world. The common Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria is used to produce insulin. Using recombinant DNA (glossary id 27) technology, the gene for producing insulin is inserted into the E. coli's genetic material. These genetically engineered bacteria are turned into tiny insulin producing factories.

Applying the Theory  Artificial Insulin - Ethical - RPU – Many people are benefited with none harmed. - QCI – No one is treated as a mere means.

The End.  Thank you.