Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood Chapter 15 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Changing Middle Age As more people lead healthier lifestyles and medical discoveries help to stave off the aging process, the boundaries of middle age are being pushed upward. Middle age is starting later and lasting longer. Middle adulthood is the developmental period that begins at about age 40 and extends to about 60. Middle age is full of changes, twists and turns, as people move in and out of states of success and failure. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Physical Development Visible Signs Height and Weight Strength, Joints, and Bones Vision Hearing Cardiovascular System Sleep Lungs ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Visible Signs Usually the first outwardly visible signs of aging are apparent by the 40s or 50s. The skin begins to wrinkle and sag due to loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissue. Small, localized areas of pigmentation in the skin produce aging spots. Hair becomes thinner and greyer. Fingernails and toenails develop ridges and become thicker and more brittle. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Height and Weight Individuals now lose height and many gain weight. Adults lose about 1.27 cm of height per decade beginning in their 40s. Body fat accounts for about 10% of body weight in adolescence, but it makes up about 20% or more in middle age. Being overweight is a critical health problem in middle adulthood. For individuals who are 30% or more overweight, the probability of dying in middle adulthood increases by about 40%. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Strength, Joints, and Bones Muscle strength decreases noticeably by the mid 40s, particularly in the back and legs. The cushions for the movement of bones (such as tendons and ligaments) become less efficient in the middle adult years. After the late 30s there is progressive bone loss. Women experience about twice the rate of bone loss as men. By the end of midlife, bones break more easily and heal more slowly. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Vision The ability of the eyes to focus and maintain an image on the retina experiences its sharpest decline between 40 and 59 years of age. In particular, middle-aged individuals begin to have difficulty viewing close objects, causing many to wear bifocal glasses. The eye’s blood supply also diminishes during the 50s or 60s. There is also evidence that the retina becomes less sensitive to low levels of illumination. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Hearing Hearing may start to decline by age 40. Sensitivity to high pitches declines first, while the ability to distinguish low-pitched sounds doesn’t seem to decline much in middle adulthood. Men usually lose their sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than women do. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Cardiovascular System The heart of a 20-year-old pumps 40 litres of blood per minute, while the heart of a 40-year-old pumps only 23 litres of blood per minute under comparable conditions. Coronary arteries narrow. Cholesterol level increases with age and begins to accumulate on the artery walls by age 60. Artery walls thicken, blood pressure increases, and chance of stroke or heart attack increases. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Sleep The total number of hours slept usually remains the same as in early adulthood. Beginning in the 40s, however, wakeful periods are more frequent and there is less of the deepest type of sleep. The amount of time spent lying awake in bed at night increases in middle age. This produces the feeling of being less rested in the morning. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Lungs There is little change in lung capacity through most of middle adulthood. At about age 55, the protein in the lung tissue becomes less elastic. The combination of loss of elasticity and gradual stiffening of the chest wall decreases the lung’s capacity. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Health Concerns and Wellness Strategies The frequency of accidents now declines and people are less susceptible to colds and allergies. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Chronic Disorders Chronic disorders are characterized by a slow onset and long duration. Chronic disorders increase in middle adulthood. The most common chronic disorders vary for women and men. Men have a higher incidence of fatal chronic conditions, while women have a higher incidence of nonfatal ones. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Culture, Personality, Relationships, and Wellness Culture and Cardiovascular Disease Type A/Type B Behavioural Patterns Hardiness Health and Social Relationships ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Culture and Cardiovascular Disease Culture plays a particularly important role in cardiovascular disease. As ethnic groups migrate, the health practices dictated by their cultures change while their genetic predispositions to certain disorders remains constant. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Type A/Type B Behavioural Patterns Type A – a cluster of characteristics—excessive competitiveness, hard driven-ness, impatience, and hostility—thought to be related to the incidence of heart disease. Type B – reflected in individuals who are relaxed and easy going. Early research showed a profound link between type A behaviour and coronary disease, which is now thought of as not quite as strong. Hostility is the characteristic most consistently associated with coronary problems. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Hardiness Hardiness is a personality style characterized by a sense of commitment, control, and a perception of problems as challenges. Studies have shown individuals with a hardy personality are less likely to succumb to illness when exposed to stressful situations. Levels of illness dropped most dramatically when hardiness was combined with exercise and social support in the face of stress. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Health and Social Relationships Researchers have revealed links between health in middle age and earlier pathways of relationships. In one longitudinal study, individuals who were on a positive relationship pathway from childhood to middle age had significantly fewer biological problems than those on a negative relationship pathway. Another study showed adults who experienced more warmth and closeness with their parents during childhood had fewer diagnosed diseases. Health in middle age is also related to the current quality of social relationships. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Mortality Rates Infectious disease was the main cause of death until the middle of the 20th century. Chronic diseases are now the main cause of death for individuals in middle adulthood. Heart disease is the leading cause of death. Cancer and cerebrovascular disease are second and third respectively. Men experience higher mortality rates than women for all of the leading causes of death. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Sexuality Menopause Hormonal Changes in Middle-Aged Men Sexual Attitudes and Behaviour Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Infections ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Menopause The time in middle age, usually late 40s or early 50s, when a woman’s menstrual periods cease. There is a dramatic decline in the production of estrogen by the ovaries. This decline produces some uncomfortable symptoms such as “hot flashes,” nausea, fatigue, and rapid heartbeat. Some menopausal women report depression and irritability. Cross-cultural variations in menopause have been found, but question still exist as to why. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Hormone Replacement Therapies There are two main types of hormone replacement theory: estrogen alone (ERT), and estrogen combined with a progestin (HRT). Currently, estrogen alone is not recommended for women who still have a uterus due to the increased risk for endometrial cancer. Positive outcome of HRT is bone loss prevention. HRT has also been tentatively linked to a protective effect for cardiovascular disease. One of the potential risks of HRT is breast cancer. Long-term use should be seriously evaluated. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Hormonal Changes in Middle-Aged Men Men experience hormonal changes in their 50s and 60s, but nothing like the dramatic drop in estrogen that women experience. Testosterone production begins to decline about 1% a year during middle adulthood, and sperm count shows a slow decline, but men do not lose their fertility in middle age. Due to the drop in testosterone levels, men’s sexual drive often lessens, and their erections are less full, less frequent, and require more stimulation to achieve them. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Sexual Attitudes and Behaviour The ability of men and women to function sexually shows little biological decline in middle adulthood. Sexual activity does usually occur on a less frequent basis than in early adulthood. The decline may actually be due to career interests, family matters, energy level, and routine. A spouse or live-in partner determines the dramatic difference in frequency of sexual activity, particularly for women. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Infections Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can be transferred from person to person at any age. Women in middle adulthood are more likely to practice “safe sex” with a new partner than middle aged men. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Intelligence Fluid intelligence – one’s ability to reason abstractly, begins to decline in middle adulthood. Crystallized intelligence – an individual’s accumulated information and verbal skills, continues to increase in middle adulthood. This data was collected from a cross-sectional study, meaning cohort effects could be at work. The Seattle Longitudinal Study is conducting an extensive study of intellectual abilities in adulthood. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

The Seattle Longitudinal Study K. Warner Schaie is investigating the individual change and stability in intelligence across the life span. The main mental abilities tested are: Vocabulary Inductive reasoning ability Verbal memory Spatial orientation Number ability Perceptual speed The highest level of functioning for four of the six intellectual abilities has been found to occur in the middle adulthood years. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Information Processing Speed of Information Processing Memory Expertise Practical Problem Solving ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Speed of Information Processing As Schaie found in his Seattle Longitudinal study, perceptual speed begins to decline in early adulthood and continues to decline in middle adulthood. A common way to assess speed of information processing is through a reaction-time task in which individuals simply push a button at the appearance of a light. Middle-aged adults are slower to push the button than young adults are. The decline is not dramatic, and it is stronger for women than for men. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Memory In Schaie’s study, verbal memory peaked in the 50s. In other studies, verbal memory has shown a decline, particularly when assessed cross-sectionally. Memory decline is more likely to occur when individuals don’t use effective memory strategies, such as organization and imagery. Using such strategies, memory in middle adulthood may actually improve. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Expertise Expertise involves having an extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain. Developing expertise is usually the result of many years of experience, learning, and effort. Because it takes so long to obtain, expertise often shows up more in middle adulthood than in early adulthood. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Strategies of the Experts Experts are more likely to rely on their accumulated experience to solve problems. Experts often automatically process information and analyze it more efficiently when solving a problem than a novice does. Experts have better strategies and short-cuts to solving problems in their domain than novices do. Experts are more creative and flexible in solving problems in their domain than novices are. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Practical Problem Solving Nancy Denney observed problem solving abilities in adults as they dealt with such circumstances as a bank error, and an irresponsible landlord. She found that the ability to solve such practical problems increased through the 40s and 50s as individuals accumulated practical experience. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Job Satisfaction Work satisfaction increases steadily throughout the work life, from age 20 to 60. This is true for both college-educated and non-college-educated adults. This is also true for both women and men. There is a greater commitment to and involvement in our work as we get older. Researchers have found the greatest physical and psychological well-being characterizes people who are doing as much paid work as they would like. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Career Challenges and Changes Globalization has replaced the traditional White male work force with employees of different ethnic and national backgrounds. The proliferation of computer technology compels middle-aged adults to become increasingly computer literate to maintain their work competence. Many companies are offering incentives to get middle-aged employees to retire early. Some individuals decide that they don’t want to do the same work they’ve been doing, forever. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Leisure Leisure refers to the pleasant times after work when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their own choosing—hobbies, sports, reading. Some developmentalists believe that middle age is a time of questioning how time should be spent and of reassessing priorities. For many, middle adulthood is the first time in their lives when they have the opportunity to diversify their interests. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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Religion and Adult Lives In the recent McArthur Study of Midlife Development, more than 70% of the individuals said they are religious and consider spirituality a major part of their lives. About one-half said they attend religious services less than once a month or never. Females have consistently shown a stronger interest in religion than males have. Although many Americans show a strong interest in religion and believe in God, they also show a declining faith in mainstream religious institutions. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Religion and Health Religion and Physical Health Coping Happiness ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Religion and Physical Health Several studies have documented that religious commitment had a protective influence on blood pressure rates. A number of studies have confirmed a positive association of religious participation and longevity. Possible reasons for these connections: lifestyle issues social networks coping with stress ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Coping Recently researchers have found that some styles of religious coping are associated with high levels of personal initiative and competence. Religious cognitions can play an important role in maintaining hope and stimulating motivation towards recovery. Religion also can forestall the development of anxiety and depression disorders by promoting social interaction. Houses of worship are a readily available, acceptable, and inexpensive source of support. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Happiness A number of researchers have found that religiously active individuals report greater happiness than do those who are religiously inactive. Other research suggests that happy people do tend to have a meaningful religious faith. We don’t know, however, whether faith enhances happiness or whether happiness induces faith. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Meaning in Life Victor Frankl’s book Man’s Search for Meaning emphasized each person’s uniqueness and the finiteness of life. Frankl said that the three most distinct human qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility. Frankl proposed that people need to ask themselves such questions as why they exist, what they want from life, and the meaning of their life. Many individuals in middle age begin to ask these questions. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

Main Needs for Meaning That Guide People’s Lives Need for purpose Need for values Need for a sense of efficacy Need for self-worth ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.