6 -1 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley SPORTS IN SOCIETY: ISSUES & CONTROVERSIES IN AUSTRALIA & NEW ZEALAND CHAPTER 6 DEVIANCE IN SPORTS : Is It Out of Control?

6-2 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Problems Faced When Studying Deviance in Sports 1.Forms & causes of deviance are diverse, and no single theory can explain them. 2.Actions accepted in sports may be deviant in other social situations. 3.Deviance in sports often involves unquestioned acceptance of norms rather than a rejection of norms. 4.Training & performance have become medicalised.

6-3 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Using Functionalist Theory to Define Deviance Deviance involves a rejection of accepted goals or the means of achieving goals in society. Conformity is equated with morality. Deviance is caused by faulty socialisation or inconsistencies in the social system. Deviance is controlled by getting tough and enforcing more rules more strictly.

6-4 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Using Conflict Theory to Define Deviance Deviance involves actions that interfere with the interests of those with economic power. The actions of those who lack power are more likely to be labelled as deviant. Those who deviate often are victims of exploitation in a system characterised by inequalities. The problem of deviance will be minimal when power is equally distributed in society.

6-5 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Using Interactionist & Critical Theories to Define Deviance Most deviance in sports is not due to the moral bankruptcy of athletes or process of economic exploitation. Much deviance in sports involves over conformity to established norms in sports. Sport deviance must be understood in terms of the normative context of sport cultures and the emphasis on “the sport ethic”.

6-6 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Deviance may involve underconformity or overconformity Figure 6-2

6-7 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley The Sport Ethic A set of norms that many people in power and performance sports accept and reaffirm as the dominant criteria for defining what it means, in their social worlds, to be a sports competitor and to successfully claim an identity as a sports competitor.

6-8 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley The Norms of the Sport Ethic A sports competitor: makes sacrifices for “the game” strives for distinction accepts risks and play through pain accepts no limits in the pursuit of possibilities

6-9 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Why Do Competitors Engage in Deviant Overconformity ? A.Sports are so exhilarating and thrilling that competitors will do almost anything to continue to do so. B.Being selected to play sports is more likely when participants over conform to the sport ethic. C.Exceeding normative limits creates excitement and bonds between participants.

6-10 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Competitors Most Likely to Overconform to the Sport Ethic A.Competitors with low self-esteem and strong needs to be accepted by peers in a sport. B.Competitors who see achievements in sport as their only way to get ahead, make themselves a name, and become important in the world.

6-11 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Deviant Overconformity and Group Dynamics Following the Norms of the Sport Ethic Special Bonds Among Competitors Hubris

6-12 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Social Processes in Elite Power & Performance Sports Bond competitors in ways that normalise overconformity to the sport ethic. Separate competitors from the rest of the community while inspiring awe and admiration among community members. Lead competitors to develop HUBRIS – that is, a sense of arrogance, separateness, and superiority.

6-13 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Hypotheses About Deviance Among Sport Participants Deviance becomes more likely when: 1.Social bonds normalise risk taking. 2.Competitors are separated from the rest of the community. 3.Participants develop extreme degrees of hubris. 4.When people in the community see competitors as being special because they engage in extreme behaviours.

6-14 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Controlling Deviant Overconformity in Sports Learn to identify the forms and dynamics of overconformity among competitors. Raise critical questions about the meaning, organisation, and purpose of sports. Create norms in sports that discourage over conformity to the sport ethic. Help participants to learn to strike a balance between accepting and questioning rules and norms in their sports.

6-15 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Research on Deviance Among Competitors On the Field Deviance Cheating, dirty play, fighting, & violence are less common today than in the past. This historical finding contradicts popular perceptions. Many people think deviance is more common today because there are more rules than ever before, and expectations for conformity are greater.

6-16 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Research on Deviance Among Sports Competitors Off the Field Deviance Competitors do not have higher delinquency rates than those who do not play sports. Data on academic cheating is inconclusive. Competitors have higher rates of alcohol use & binge drinking. Felony rates among adult athletes do not seem to be out of control, but they do constitute a problem (see Ch. 7).

6-17 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Is Sport Participation a Cure for Deviant Behaviour? Research suggests that playing organised sports might discourage deviance when they emphasise: 1.A philosophy of nonviolence 2.Respect for self and others 3.The importance of fitness and control over self 4.Confidence in physical skills 5.A sense of responsibility

6-18 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley DON’T FORGET Competitors are not the only ones in sports who engage in deviant behaviour. Think of other examples involving: Coaches Administrators Team managers and owners Agents Testing is justified because drug users affect the lives of others Parents Spectators

6-19 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Using Performance Enhancing Substances in Sports  The use of performance enhancing substances occurs regularly in high performance sports.  Many cases of usage constitute a form of deviant overconformity.  Such substances will be used as long as competitors believe they will enhance performance.

6-20 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Defining and Banning Performance Enhancing Substances Defining what constitutes a “performance enhancing substance” is difficult. Defining what is natural or artificial is difficult. Defining what is fair when it comes to the use of science, medicine, & technology in sports is difficult. Determining what is dangerous to health is difficult. Studying and testing for substances is constrained by ethical and legal factors.

6-21 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Why Is Substance Use So Prevalent Today? (1-5) 1.The high stakes in sports have fuelled research and development of substances. 2.Fascination with the use of technology to push human limits. 3.The rationalisation of the body. 4.Heavy emphasis on self-medication. 5.Changing gender relations. (continued)

6-22 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Why Is Substance Use So Prevalent Today? (6-8) 6.The organisation of power and performance sports (must win to continue to play). 7.Coaches, sponsors, administrators, and fans clearly encourage most forms of deviant overconformity. 8.Competitors’ performances are closely monitored with an emphasis on control over body and conformity to demands of coaches.

6-23 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Arguments Against Testing Competitors and substance manufacturers can stay one step ahead of the testers. Mandatory testing, testing without cause, and using blood and tissue violates privacy rights. Tests are expensive and drain resources in sport organisations. Tests are ineffective for synthetic versions naturally produced substances. Drug tests will push more competitors toward genetic engineering.

6-24 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Arguments for Testing Testing is needed to protect participants’ health. Testing is need to guarantee fairness and a level playing field. Testing is a part of normal law enforcement because drug use is illegal in many cases. Testing is needed to anticipate and discourage the use of genetic engineering.

6-25 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start (I) Critically examine the hypocrisy in elite sports Establish rules indicating that risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in sports Establish rules stating that injured competitors must be independently certified as “well” before they may play Educate young competitors to define courage and discipline in ways that promote health (continued)d)

6-26 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start (II) Establish a code of ethics for sport scientists Make drug education part of deviance and health education  Create norms regulating use of technology  Critically examine values and norms in sports  Redefine meaning of achievement  Teach competitors to think critically  Provide accurate and current information to parents, coaches, and competitors