Chapter 5 Motivation at Work 1 Define motivation. 2 Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. 3 Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. 4 Describe the two-factor theory of motivation. 5 Explain two new ideas in human motivation. 6 Describe the role of inequity in motivation. 7 Describe the expectancy theory of motivation. 8 Describe the cultural differences in motivation. Learning Outcomes © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 1 Define motivation. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Definition of Motivation the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 2 6

MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES Internal Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to motivation and behavior Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Process Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the individual and the environment Example: Expectancy theory External Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior Example: Two-factor theory 3 GROUPS © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 3

Early Philosophers Max Weber work contributes to salvation of Motivational Theories Max Weber work contributes to salvation Protestant work ethic Sigmund Freud delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 7 7 7 5 3 7

Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories Adam Smith “enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people Frederick Taylor founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge company profits © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 7 7 7 5 3 7

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs SA Lowest to highest order Esteem Love (Social) Safety and Security Physiological 2 5 2 6 4 2

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 2 Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Motivational Theories X and Y Theory Y A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needs Theory X A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needs © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Theories Applied to Needs Hierarchy Theory Y – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs Esteem Love (Social) Theory X – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs Safety and Security Physiological 2 5 2 7 5 2

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X Naturally indolent Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs Naturally resistant to change Gullible, not bright, ready dupes © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org. 7 8

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience People possess Motivation Development potential Capacity for assuming responsibility Readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org. 8 9

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational methods so people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 8 9

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Alderfer’s ERG Theory SA Growth Esteem Love (Social) Relatedness Safety and Security Existence Physiological © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 10

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 3 Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. McClelland’s Theory 3 main categories of needs Achievement Power Affiliation © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 15 6

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Power a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 16 6

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Affiliation a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 6 6 6 2 17 6

3 Motivational Need Theories Maslow McGregor Alderfer McClelland Need for Achievement Self-actualization Theory Y Growth Esteem self interpersonal Higher Order Needs Need for Power Belongingness (social and love) Relatedness Need for Affiliation Safety and Security interpersonal physical Theory X Lower Order Needs Existence Physiological 18

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 4 Describe the two-factor theory of motivation. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene factor Motivation factor Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different part of an employee’s experience © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. HYGIENE FACTOR maintenance factor contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied contributes to absence of complaints © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 9 11

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Motivation Factor job enrichment leads to superior performance & effort © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Motivation–Hygiene Theory Achievement Achievement recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Salary? Motivation factors increase job satisfaction Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction Company policy and administration Supervision Interpersonal relations Working conditions Salary Status Security SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission. 10 13

Motivation–Hygiene Combinations (Motivation = M, Hygiene = H) © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 14

Questions on Herzberg’s Theory Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor? What role do individual differences (age, sex, social status, education) play? What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) play? © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 5 Explain two new ideas in human motivation. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

New Ideas : Eustress, Strength, Hope Eustress – healthy, normal stress Opportunities Challenges Energy Obstacles Barriers Frustration © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

New Ideas : Positive Energy and Full Engagement Management of Energy © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Beyond the Book: Intrinsic Motivation A recent study examined the effects of job demands, job control, and job social support on fatigue and intrinsic motivation among a sample group of 555 nurses. The study found no correlation between job social support and fatigue, but higher levels of support produced elevated levels of intrinsic motivation regardless of job-demands and job-control levels. Intrinsic Motivation Increases with Instrumental Support on the Job A recent study examined the effects of job demands, job control, and job social support on fatigue and intrinsic motivation among 555 nurses in specialized units for patients with different levels of mental deficiency. The investigators thought that intrinsic motivation among these nurses would increase when job demands and job control were high, and also when job social support was high. Further, they thought that fatigue among the nurses would be high when job demands were high and job control low, as well as when job social support was low. The investigators did find that job control reduced fatigue in highly demanding jobs but found no evidence that support on the job made any difference in the nurses’ level of fatigue. Further, they found that the availability of high levels of instrumental support on the job produced elevated levels of intrinsic motivation for the nurses. This latter finding concerning high levels of instrumental support and intrinsic motivation held true regardless of the level of job demands or job control. The investigators suggest that increasing job social support is the most effective way to enhance intrinsic motivation for employees. Further, an important managerial implication of the study is that refining interpersonal skills associated with exchanging social support with others, such as asking for help from others on the job, may have very positive motivational effects for employees at work. SOURCE: N. W. van Yperen and M. Hagedoorn, “Do High Job Demands Increase Intrinsic Motivation or Fatigue or Both? The Role of Job Control and Job Social Support,” Academy of Management Journal 46 (2003): 339–348. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 6 Describe the role of inequity in motivation. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Social Exchange & Equity Theory Equity theory focuses on individual–environment interaction Concerned with social processes © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Individual–Organizational Exchange Relationship Organization Individual Organizational goals Departmental objectives Job tasks Physiological needs Security needs Physical needs Company status Benefits Income Developmental potential Employee knowledge Employee skills and abilities Demands Contributions SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III. And K. E. Weick, Jr. Managerial Behavior. Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Adam’s Theory of Inequity Inequity – the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Equity and Inequity at Work Person Comparison other Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs Negative Outcomes < Outcomes Equity Inputs Inputs Positive Outcomes > Outcomes Equity Inputs Inputs 19

Strategies for Resolution of Inequity Alter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outputs Alter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison other Rationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situation © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 7 7 7 3 20 7

New Perspectives on Equity Theory I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other Equity Sensitive © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 21

New Perspectives in Equity Theory I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other Benevolent © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 22

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Entitled I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 23

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 7 Describe the expectancy theory of motivation. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs Valence – value or importance placed on a particular reward Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to rewards © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 24

Expectancy Model of Motivation Effort Effort Performance Reward Perceived effort – performance probability Perceived performance – reward probability Perceived value of reward “What are my chances of getting the job done if I put forth the necessary effort?” “What are my chances of getting the rewards I value if I satisfactorily complete the job?” “What rewards do I value?” 25

3 Causes of Motivational Problems Belief that effort will not result in performance Belief that performance will not result in rewards The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Moral Maturity the measure of a person’s cognitive moral development © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Moral Maturity Morally mature people behave and act based on universal ethical principles. Morally immature people behave and act based on egocentric motivations. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Learning Outcome 8 Describe the cultural differences in motivation. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Cultural Differences = Motivational theories are culturally bound Research results differ among cultures U.S. Results Other Cultural Results = © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Ways to Motivate People Training Coaching Task assignments Rewards contingent on good performance Valued rewards available © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Beyond the Book: Volunteering and Motivation Canine Companions for Independence provides trained assistance dogs for the disabled. Emily Williams, a volunteer at CCI, has helped to raise 180 dogs over the course of a decade. SOURCE: R. Wolfe, “A Passion for Puppies: Volunteers for Canine Companions Raise and Train Dogs for Human Assistance,” The Press Democrat 14 (August 31, 2003): B5. Jack Warnock is a retired Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) executive with multiple sclerosis who also suffered a stroke. These health problems have not stopped Warnock; he still makes about 50 speaking appearances each year in his wheelchair with his dog, Ellie, by his side. Ellie is a Canine Companion dog that has changed his life in a positive way. Ellie knew 49 basic commands when she first met Warnock. She can gently pull off his socks and slacks at bedtime and fetch things out of the refrigerator. Ellie even closes the refrigerator door when Warnock says “Ellie, were you raised in a barn?”1 He recognizes that most people cannot imagine how Canine Companion dogs change a person’s life nor how much work is involved for the puppy-raisers who prepare these dogs to serve. Canine Companions for Independence (CCI) has provided highly trained assistance dogs and ongoing support to people with disabilities for more than 25 years. Nationally headquartered on the Schulz Campus in Santa Rosa, California, CCI has four other regional training centers where dogs and humans work together as a team. More than 2,000 assistance dog-and-human teams have gone through the training. Canine Companions may enter the program as puppies in training or as “mama” dogs. The cost of raising and training one assistance dog for Canine Companions is approximately $10,000. This cost includes medical care, food, and training by specialists. This cost does not include the important contributions of volunteers who raise the assistance dogs from pups. Emily Williams is one of these dedicated volunteers. A Canine Companion volunteer for well over a decade, Emily Williams is motivated by love, not money. She receives no salary; all she does is love puppies. She knows the name of every dog she has cared for—a total of 180 special dogs entrusted to Emily over the years. She has served as canine midwife, helping to whelp 19 litters, and raised 10 assistance dogs in training. CCI cannot put a price tag on what Emily and its other volunteers do. Nor could CCI afford to pay them for everything they do in loving these puppies into mature dogs ready for assistance training. Emily is motivated and inspired by the difficult road chosen by disabled persons who sign up for a service dog. In recognition for her dedicated volunteer service, Emily was recognized with CCI’s 2003 Jack Warnock Award for outstanding volunteer service. At the end of CCI’s silver anniversary year, 9/11 struck. The tragic events of that day would unfortunately increase the need for the indispensable services of Canine Companions. Watching the events of September 11, 2001, unfold on television, hospital administrative director Dr. Tom Demaria realized that the children and families of those killed would need long-term emotional support. Dr. Demaria acted quickly and signed a lease for a 5,000-square-foot storefront in Rockville Centre to house a counseling center. This counseling facility became the World Trade Center Child and Family Counseling Program, sponsored by South Nassau Communities Hospital and financed largely from two memorial funds—Project Liberty and the September 11th Fund. Anyone who lost a relative on 9/11 receives the program’s services for free. The events of 9/11 are the kind of tragedy that threatens our security and our sense of safety and triggers our need for emotional support and nurturance. Dr. Demaria created a safe place where parents could bring their children and be cared for themselves. The families made the rules in the counseling center, not the counseling program’s 25 therapists, including psychologists, social workers, and art therapists from the South Nassau hospital staff These therapists are not alone in providing emotional support for the grieving. CCI prepares its assistance dogs to help the disabled and also to be a source of support and comfort for the grieving. Tom Flynn drove Derek, his three-year- old Canine Companion golden retriever, every three weeks to Rockville Centre from his home in Pennsylvania. For Kiersten Haub, who lost her firefighter father Michael Haub in the 9/11 tragedy, Derek was a source of emotional support as he would lay on the carpet, letting Kiersten ruffle his fur. Derek was trained at CCI’s regional center at the State University at Farmingdale. The trauma of sudden, violent death as caused by 9/11 is abnormal, threatens people, and elicits deeper needs than usually experienced. These events take us all out of the realm of normal human motivation and into the realm of coping and recovery. The frustration, anger, and confusion experienced in these traumatic circumstances are often labeled by victims as abnormal, while in fact they are quite normal reactions to abnormal events. As people rebuild their self-confidence and lives in the face of such tragedy, the wise words of an experienced therapist can be helpful. So, too, can the gentle stroking of a Canine Companion by a traumatized child be therapeutic and aid that child in the process of healing and recovery. Coworkers, friends, family, and Canine Companions are all part of an emotional support network in a person’s darkest hour before the dawn of a new day and renewed strength.73 Emily is an unpaid volunteer—love for dogs and disabled persons are her sole motivations to work with CCI. © 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.