1. Chapter 5 Organizational Behavior: Foundations, Realities, & Challenges Nelson & Quick, 5th edition
Motivation at Work

2. Definition of Motivation
Motivation – the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior 6 6 6 2 2 6

3. 3 Groups of Motivational Theories
Internal
Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to motivation and behavior
Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
Process
Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the individual and the environment
Example: Expectancy theory
External
Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior
Example: Two-factor theory 3

4. Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories
Max Weber
work contributes to salvation
Protestant work ethic
Sigmund Freud
delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs 7 7 7 3 5 7

5. Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories
Adam Smith
“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people
Frederick Taylor
founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge company profits 7 7 7 3 5 7

6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs SA
Lowest to highest order
Esteem
Love (Social)
Safety and Security
Physiological 2 5 2 6 4 2

7. Motivational Theories X and Y
Theory X
A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needs
Theory Y
A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needs

8. Theories Applied to Needs Hierarchy
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Theory Y – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs
Esteem
Love (Social)
Theory X – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs
Safety and Security
Physiological 2 5 2 5 7 2

9. McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X
Naturally indolent
Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led
Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs
Naturally resistant to change
Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. 7 8

10. McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y
Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience
People possess
Motivation
Development potential
Capacity for assuming responsibility
Readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. 8 9

11. McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y
Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational methods so people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. 8 9

12. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Growth Relatedness Existence SA Esteem
Love (Social)
Relatedness
Safety and Security
Existence
Physiological 10

13. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement
Need for Achievement – a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties 6 6 6 2 15 6

14. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Power
Need for Power – a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life 6 6 6 2 16 6

15. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Affiliation
Need for Affiliation – a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people 6 6 6 2 17 6

16. 3 Motivational Need Theories
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3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow
McGregor
Alderfer
McClelland
Need for
Achievement
Self-actualization
Theory Y
Growth
Esteem
self
interpersonal
Higher
Order
Needs
Need for
Power
Belongingness (social and love)
Relatedness
Need for
Affiliation
Safety and Security interpersonal
physical
Theory X
Lower
Order
Needs
Existence
Physiological 18

17. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor – work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
maintenance factor
contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
contributes to absence of complaints 9 11

18. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Motivation Factor – work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
job enrichment
leads to superior performance & effort 9 11

19. Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation
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Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Salary?
Motivation factors increase job satisfaction
Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction
Company policy and administration
Supervision
Interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Salary
Status
Security
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission. 10 13

20. Motivation–Hygiene Combinations
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H) 14

21. Questions on Herzberg’s Theory
Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor?
What role do individual differences (age, sex, social status, education) play?
What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) play?

22. Adam’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity – the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving

23. Equity and Inequity at Work
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Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Equity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Equity Inputs Inputs 19

24. Strategies for Resolution of Inequity
Alter the person’s outcomes
Alter the person’s inputs
Alter the comparison other’s outputs
Alter the comparison other’s inputs
Change who is used as a comparison other
Rationalize the inequity
Leave the organizational situation 7 7 7 3 20 7

25. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other
Equity Sensitive 21

26. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other
Benevolent 22

27. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other 23

28. Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs
Valence – value or importance placed on a particular reward
Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to rewards 24

29. Expectancy Model of Motivation
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Effort
Effort
Performance
Reward
Perceived effort –
performance
probability
Perceived
performance –
reward probability
Perceived
value of reward
“What are my chances of getting the job done if I put forth the necessary effort?”
“What are my chances of getting the rewards I value if I satisfactorily complete the job?”
“What rewards
do I value?” 25

30. 3 Causes of Motivational Problems
Belief that effort will not result in performance
Belief that performance will not result in rewards
The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards

31. Other Cultural Results
Cultural Differences
Motivational theories are culturally bound
Research results differ among cultures
U.S. Results
Other Cultural Results =

32. Ways to Motivate People
Training
Coaching
Task assignments
Rewards contingent on good performance
Valued rewards available