Behavioral Approaches to Learning and Teaching FOUN 3100 Sondra M. Parmer Auburn University Fall 2003

What is learning?  Examples of learning Learning addition Learning addition Learning to drive Learning to drive Learning social interaction Learning social interaction  Examples of things that are NOT learning Reflexive behavior (e.g., swallowing) Reflexive behavior (e.g., swallowing) Innate abilities Innate abilities

Approaches to Learning  Behavioral – emphasis on experiences  Cognitive – emphasis on mental process Social cognitive Social cognitive Cognitive information-processing Cognitive information-processing Cognitive constructivist Cognitive constructivist Social constructivist Social constructivist

Behavioral Approaches to Learning

Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. Neutral stimulus meaningful stimulus response

Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning

Generalization – involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response (e.g., test anxiety: biology test – chemistry test).

Classical Conditioning Discrimination – occurs when the organism responds to a certain stimuli but not others (e.g., test anxiety: English test).

Classical Conditioning Extinction – involves weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., good grades on test = fading of test anxiety).

Classical Conditioning  Good at explaining how neutral stimuli becomes associated with unlearned, involuntary responses.  Good at understanding students’ anxieties and fears.  Not as effective at explaining voluntary behaviors.

Classical Conditioning Activity  Get into groups of 3-4 people.  Determine an example of classical conditioning.  Each group will present their example in the form of a skit to the rest of the class.  The class will try to identify the following: Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Unconditioned response Conditioned response Conditioned response

Operant Conditioning  A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.  Example: When John made good grades [behavior] his parents gave him money [consequence] so he continued to make good grades [future behavior].

Operant Conditioning  Thorndike Cats in puzzle boxes Cats in puzzle boxes Thorndike’s Law of Effect Thorndike’s Law of Effect Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened; behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened; behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. Positive Example: I sing a song – you applaud for me – I continue to sing. Positive Example: I sing a song – you applaud for me – I continue to sing. Negative Example: I sing a song – you boo at me and throw tomatoes – I no longer sing. Negative Example: I sing a song – you boo at me and throw tomatoes – I no longer sing.

B. F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning  Reinforcement (reward) – increases the probability a response will occur Positive reinforcement – frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulusPositive reinforcement – frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus Negative reinforcement – frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulusNegative reinforcement – frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus  Punishment – decreases the probability a response will occur

Examples of Positive Reinforcement  My son scores a goal in soccer [behavior]; I praise him [consequence]; He continues to try to score goals [future behavior].  Student begins using the adverb “well” correctly [behavior]; She receives extra time in the reading area [consequence]; Student continues to use “well” appropriately [future behavior].

Examples of Negative Reinforcement  Student comes to class on time [behavior]; Teacher stops writing student’s name on the board [consequence]; Student continues to come to class on time [future behavior].  Student completes homework after school [behavior]; Parents stop nagging at student to complete homework [consequence]; Student increasingly completes homework after school [future behavior].

Examples of Punishment  Student is caught cheating [behavior]; Student is placed in ISS [consequence]; Student does not cheat again [future behavior].  Two students are disruptive during class [behavior]; Students are reprimanded by the teacher [consequence]; Students become silent during class [future behavior].

Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Decreases the likelihood that the response will occur. Increases the probability that the response will occur.

Operant Conditioning Activity  Get into groups of 3-4 people.  Determine an example of positive reinforcement positive reinforcement negative reinforcement negative reinforcement punishment punishment  Each group will present their examples to the rest of the class.  The class will try to identify each of the above as well as identify the behavior, consequence and future behavior.

Applied Behavior Analysis in Education  Applies operant conditioning to change human behavior. It increases desirable behavior while decreasing undesirable behavior.

Increasing Desirable Behaviors  Choose effective reinforcers Tailored for individuals Tailored for individuals Natural ones – praise and privilege Natural ones – praise and privilege Premack principle – a high probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low probability activity Premack principle – a high probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low probability activity Example: If you complete the assignment, you may have 5 extra minutes at recess.Example: If you complete the assignment, you may have 5 extra minutes at recess.

Increasing Desirable Behaviors  Make the reinforcer contingent and timely – provide the reward only after the child performs the behavior. Example: If you clean up your area, then you may listen to music. Example: If you clean up your area, then you may listen to music.

Increasing Desirable Behaviors  Use the best schedule of reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedule Fixed-ratio schedule A behavior is reinforced after a set number of responsesA behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses Variable-ratio schedule Variable-ratio schedule A behavior is reinforced after an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basisA behavior is reinforced after an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis Fixed-interval schedule Fixed-interval schedule First appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is reinforcedFirst appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced Variable-interval schedule Variable-interval schedule A response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsedA response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed

Increasing Desirable Behaviors  Consider contracting – putting reinforcement contingencies in writing.  Using prompts and shaping Prompt – an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response and increases the likelihood that the response will occur. (e.g., peace and quiet) Prompt – an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response and increases the likelihood that the response will occur. (e.g., peace and quiet) Shaping – teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior (e.g., tennis ball activity) Shaping – teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior (e.g., tennis ball activity)

Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors  Use differential reinforcement – reinforce behavior that is more appropriate (e.g., reinforce a student for raising hand to answer rather than blurting out answer)  Terminate reinforcement (extinction) – withdraw positive reinforcement from inappropriate behavior and reward the appropriate behavior (e.g., “thank you for sitting in your seat so quietly”

Decreasing Undesirable Behavior  Remove desirable stimuli Time-out Time-out Response cost Response cost  Present aversive stimuli Example: Lack of sharing – parental verbal disappointment Example: Lack of sharing – parental verbal disappointment

Divide into four groups of six people. Each group will consider one of the following students' undesirable behaviors. Each group will determine strategies for decreasing the behaviors listed. What is the best strategy for each? Report back to the class your strategies for decreasing the behavior. 1) Andrew, who likes to utter profanities every now and then; 2) Sandy, who tells you to quit bugging her when you ask her questions; 3) Matt, who likes to mess up other students' papers; 4) Rebecca, who frequently talks with other students around her while you are explaining or demonstrating something. IN CLASS ACTIVITY

Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play important roles in learning

Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism Model

Observational Learning  Also known as imitation or modeling  Classic Bobo doll study  The application of consequences is not necessary for learning to take place  Rather learning can occur through the simple processes of observing someone else's activity

Bandura’s Contemporary Model of Observational Learning Bandura formulated his findings in a four- step pattern which combines a cognitive view and an operant view of learning. Attention -- the individual notices something in the environment Retention -- the individual remembers what was noticed Reproduction -- the individual produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed Motivation -- the environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability the behavior will be emitted again (reinforcement and punishment)

Cognitive Behavior Approaches  Emphasize getting students to monitor, manage, and regulate their own behavior.  Self-instructional techniques that can be taught to students for self-monitoring prepare for anxiety or stress prepare for anxiety or stress confront and handle the anxiety or stress confront and handle the anxiety or stress cope with feelings at critical moments cope with feelings at critical moments use reinforcing self-statements use reinforcing self-statements