The Eighteenth century India in the Era of Transition

Debates in the Historiography about 18 the century Mughal Empire ( ) Mughal Empire ( ) Early thesis of the 18 th century as an era of Darkness Early thesis of the 18 th century as an era of Darkness Increasing Tax burden Increasing Tax burden Hindu Resistance / Wars of Peasant Resistance/ Regional Elites rising their heads Hindu Resistance / Wars of Peasant Resistance/ Regional Elites rising their heads Complex struggle for supremacy for empire Complex struggle for supremacy for empire Changes in the pattern of class formation Changes in the pattern of class formation

New Political Organization Independent Provinces Independent Provinces Warrior States of Sikhs, Jaths and Marathas Warrior States of Sikhs, Jaths and Marathas Local Kingdoms and Warrior Adventurers Local Kingdoms and Warrior Adventurers Mughal Legitimacy Mughal Legitimacy Conquests, Intrigues and Fractional Squabbles Conquests, Intrigues and Fractional Squabbles

Economic System of India Increased Agricultural Productivity Increased Agricultural Productivity Favorable Land Labor Ratio Favorable Land Labor Ratio Peasant and Artisan Mobility Peasant and Artisan Mobility Rise of Hereditary Land Holders Rise of Hereditary Land Holders Thriving Internal Trade in Grain, Textiles and Cattle Thriving Internal Trade in Grain, Textiles and Cattle Rise of New Urban Centers Rise of New Urban Centers Decline of Ancient Indian Port Cities and Indian Maritime Traders Decline of Ancient Indian Port Cities and Indian Maritime Traders

Complex Cultural Heritage Popular Devotional Cults Popular Devotional Cults Darga of Muinuddin Chisti and complex religious rituals Darga of Muinuddin Chisti and complex religious rituals Vaishnava Cult of Nadia Vaishnava Cult of Nadia Varanasi as the center of Hindu learning in South Asia Varanasi as the center of Hindu learning in South Asia Idea of Hindu Padpadsahi in Maharastra Idea of Hindu Padpadsahi in Maharastra Sikh Muslim clashes Sikh Muslim clashes Emergence of the notion of Islamic Revival (Shah Waliullah, and Shah Abdul Aziz ) Emergence of the notion of Islamic Revival (Shah Waliullah, and Shah Abdul Aziz ) Complex interaction between religious heterodoxy and orthodoxy Complex interaction between religious heterodoxy and orthodoxy