1 Pertemuan 04 Bangunan Tinggi Matakuliah: S0182/Studi Kasus Dalam Teknik Sipil Tahun: Juli 2005 Versi: 01/01

2 Learning Outcomes Mahasiswa dapat membandingkan kasus- kasus yang terjadi dengan berbagai alternatif yang dipilih  C4

3 Outline Materi Analisa pemecahan masalah Beberapa alternatif pemecahan masalah Kasus kegagalan konstruksi yang mungkin terjadi

4 The Collapse of Buildings Buildings, like all structures, are designed to support certain loads without deforming excessively. The loads are the weights of people and objects, the weight of rain and snow and the pressure of wind-- called live loads--and the dead load of the building itself. With buildings of a few floors, strength generally accompanies sufficent rigidity, and the design is mainly that of a roof that will keep the weather out while spanning large open spaces. With tall buildings of many floors, the roof is a minor matter, and the support of the weight of the building itself is the main consideration. Like long bridges, tall buildings are subject to catastrophic collapse. The causes of building collapse can be classified under general headings to facilitate analysis. These headings are: Bad Design Faulty Construction Foundation Failure Extraordinary Loads Unexpected Failure Modes Combination of Causes

5 The Collapse of Buildings Buildings, like all structures, are designed to support certain loads without deforming excessively. The loads are the weights of people and objects, the weight of rain and snow and the pressure of wind-- called live loads--and the dead load of the building itself. With buildings of a few floors, strength generally accompanies sufficent rigidity, and the design is mainly that of a roof that will keep the weather out while spanning large open spaces. With tall buildings of many floors, the roof is a minor matter, and the support of the weight of the building itself is the main consideration. Like long bridges, tall buildings are subject to catastrophic collapse. The causes of building collapse can be classified under general headings to facilitate analysis. These headings are: Bad Design Faulty Construction Foundation Failure Extraordinary Loads Unexpected Failure Modes Combination of Causes

6 The Collapse of Buildings Bad design does not mean only errors of computation, but a failure to take into account the loads the structure will be called upon to carry, erroneous theories, reliance on inaccurate data, ignorance of the effects of repeated or impulsive stresses, and improper choice of materials or misunderstanding of their properties. The engineer is responsible for these failures, which are created at the drawing board. Faulty construction has been the most important cause of structural failure. The engineer is also at fault here, if inspection has been lax. This includes the use of salty sand to make concrete, the substitution of inferior steel for that specified, bad riveting or even improper tightening torque of nuts, excessive use of the drift pin to make holes line up, bad welds, and other practices well known to the construction worker. Even an excellently designed and constructed structure will not stand on a bad foundation. Although the structure will carry its loads, the earth beneath it may not. The Leaning Tower of Pisa is a famous example of bad foundations, but there are many others. The old armory in St. Paul, Minnesota, sank 20 feet or more into soft clay, but did not collapse. The displacements due to bad foundations may alter the stress distribution significantly. This was such a problem with railway bridges in America that statically-determinate trusses were greatly preferred, since they were not subject to this danger.

7 The Collapse of Buildings Extraordinary loads are often natural, such as repeated heavy snowfalls, or the shaking of an earthquake, or the winds of a hurricane. A building that is intended to stand for some years should be able to meet these challenges. A flimsy flexible structure may avoid destruction in an earthquake, while a solid masonry building would be destroyed. Earthquakes may cause foundation problems when moist filled land liquefies. Unexpected failure modes are the most complex of the reasons for collapse, and we have recently had a good example. Any new type of structure is subject to unexpected failure, until its properties are well understood. Suspension bridges seemed the answer to bridging large gaps. Everything was supported by a strong cable in tension, a reliable and understood member. However, sad experience showed that the bridge deck was capable of galloping and twisting without restraint from the supporting cables. Ellet's bridge at Wheeling collapsed in the 1840's, and the Tacoma Narrows bridge in the 1940's, from this cause. The conservative, strong statically-determinate trusses were designed with pin- connected eyebars to be as strong and safe as possible. Sad experience brought the realization of stress concentration at the holes pierced in the eyebars. From earliest times, it has been recognized that tension members have no surprises. They fail by pulling apart when the tension in them becomes too high. If you know the tension, then proportioning a member is easy. A compression member, a column, is different. If it is short and squat, it bears its load until it crushes. But if you try to support a load with a 12-foot column that will just support the load with a 1-foot column, you are in for a surprise. The column bends outward, or buckles, and the load crashes to earth.

8 The Collapse of Buildings Suppose you have a beam supported at the ends, with a load in the center. You know the beam will bend, and if the load is too great, it may break apart at the bottom, or crush at the top, under the load. This you expect. However, the beam may fail by splitting into two beams longitudinally, or shearing, or by the top of the beam deflecting to one side or the other, also called buckling. In fact, a beam will usually fail by shearing or buckling before breaking. A hollow tube makes a very efficient column or beam. If you think about it, it is the material on the surface that most resists buckling and bending. A column that is modified from a compact cross- section, like a cylinder, to an extended cross-section, like a pipe, can still support the same load per unit area, but with much greater resistance to buckling. As a beam, one side is in compression and the other in tension, while the pipe cannot buckle to one side or the other. When you do bend a pipe, notice that it crushes inward reducing the cross-section to a line, which bends easily. Tubes need to be supported against buckling. Such a tube has a very high ratio of strength to weight, and hence strength to cost.

9 The Collapse of Buildings Suppose you have a beam supported at the ends, with a load in the center. You know the beam will bend, and if the load is too great, it may break apart at the bottom, or crush at the top, under the load. This you expect. However, the beam may fail by splitting into two beams longitudinally, or shearing, or by the top of the beam deflecting to one side or the other, also called buckling. In fact, a beam will usually fail by shearing or buckling before breaking. A hollow tube makes a very efficient column or beam. If you think about it, it is the material on the surface that most resists buckling and bending. A column that is modified from a compact cross- section, like a cylinder, to an extended cross-section, like a pipe, can still support the same load per unit area, but with much greater resistance to buckling. As a beam, one side is in compression and the other in tension, while the pipe cannot buckle to one side or the other. When you do bend a pipe, notice that it crushes inward reducing the cross-section to a line, which bends easily. Tubes need to be supported against buckling. Such a tube has a very high ratio of strength to weight, and hence strength to cost.

10 The Collapse of Buildings Suppose you have a beam supported at the ends, with a load in the center. You know the beam will bend, and if the load is too great, it may break apart at the bottom, or crush at the top, under the load. This you expect. However, the beam may fail by splitting into two beams longitudinally, or shearing, or by the top of the beam deflecting to one side or the other, also called buckling. In fact, a beam will usually fail by shearing or buckling before breaking. A hollow tube makes a very efficient column or beam. If you think about it, it is the material on the surface that most resists buckling and bending. A column that is modified from a compact cross- section, like a cylinder, to an extended cross-section, like a pipe, can still support the same load per unit area, but with much greater resistance to buckling. As a beam, one side is in compression and the other in tension, while the pipe cannot buckle to one side or the other. When you do bend a pipe, notice that it crushes inward reducing the cross-section to a line, which bends easily. Tubes need to be supported against buckling. Such a tube has a very high ratio of strength to weight, and hence strength to cost.

11 Why the World Trade Center Buildings Collapsed A Fire Chief ’s Assessment World Trade Center tower construction In terms of structural system the twin towers departed completely from other high-rise buildings. Conventional skyscrapers since the 19th century have been built with a skeleton of interior supporting columns that supports the structure. Exterior walls of glass steel or synthetic material do not carry any load. The Twin towers are radically different in structural design as the exterior wall is used as the load-bearing wall. (A load bearing wall supports the weight of the floors.) The only interior columns are located in the core area, which contains the elevators. The outer wall carries the building vertical loads and provides the entire resistance to wind. The wall consists of closely spaced vertical columns (21 columns 10 feet apart) tied together by horizontal spandrel beams that girdle the tower at every floor. On the inside of the structure the floor sections consist of trusses spanning from the core to the outer wall.

12 Why the World Trade Center Buildings Collapsed A Fire Chief ’s Assessment Bearing walls and Open floor design When the jet liners crashed into the towers based upon knowledge of the tower construction and high-rise firefighting experience the following happened: First the plane broke through the tubular steel- bearing wall. This started the building failure. Next the exploding, disintegrating, 185-ton jet plane slid across an open office floor area and severed many of the steel interior columns in the center core area. Plane parts also crashed through the plasterboard-enclosed stairways, cutting off the exits from the upper floors. The jet collapsed the ceilings and scraped most of the spray-on fire retarding asbestos from the steel trusses. The steel truss floor supports probably started to fail quickly from the flames and the center steel supporting columns severed by plane parts heated by the flames began to buckle, sag, warp and fail. Then the top part of the tower crashed down on the lower portion of the structure. This pancake collapse triggered the entire cascading collapse of the 110- story structure

13 Why the World Trade Center Buildings Collapsed A Fire Chief ’s Assessment Steel Framing The most noticeable change in the modern high-rise construction is a trend to using more steel and shaping lightweight steel into tubes, curves, and angles to increase its load bearing capability. The WTC has tubular steel bearing walls, fluted corrugated steel flooring and bent bar steel truss floor supports. To a modern high rise building designer steel framing is economical and concrete is a costly material. For a high-rise structural frame: columns, girders, floors and walls, steel provides greater strength per pound than concrete. Concrete is heavy. Concrete creates excessive weight in the structure of a building. Architects, designers, and builders all know if you remove concrete from a structure you have a building that weights less. So if you create a lighter building you can use columns, girders and beams of smaller dimensions, or better yet you can use the same size steel framing and build a taller structure. In News York City where space is limited you must build high. The trend over the past half- century is to create lightweight high buildings.

14 Why the World Trade Center Buildings Collapsed A Fire Chief ’s Assessment Steel Framing To do this you use thin steel bent bar truss construction instead of solid steel beams. To do this you use hollow tube steel bearing walls, and curved sheet steel (corrugated) under floors. To do this you eliminate as much concrete from the structure as you can and replace it with steel. Lightweight construction means economy. It means building more with less. If you reduce the structure’s mass you can build cheaper and builder higher. Unfortunately unprotected steel warps, melts, sags and collapses when heated to normal fire temperatures about 1100 to 1200 degrees F.

15 Why the World Trade Center Buildings Collapsed A Fire Chief ’s Assessment Steel Framing The fire service believes there is a direct relation of fire resistance to mass of structure. The more mass the more fire resistance. The best fire resistive building in America is a concrete structure. The structures that limit and confine fires best, and suffer fewer collapses are reinforced concrete pre WWII buildings such as housing projects and older high rise buildings like the empire state building, The more concrete, the more fire resistance; and the more concrete the less probability of total collapse. The evolution of high- rise construction can be seen, by comparing the empire state building to the WTC. My estimate is the ratio of concrete to steel in the empire state building is 60/40. The ratio of concrete to steel in the WTC is 40/60. The tallest building in the world, the Petronas Towers, in Kula Lumpur, Malaysia, is more like the concrete to steel ratio of the empire state building than concrete to steel ratio of the WTC. Donald Trump in New York City has constructed the tallest reinforced concrete high-rise residence building.

16 Recommendations for constructing the new high rise buildings on ground zero The steel columns, girders and floor beams should be encased in masonry or other more effective fire retarding material. Spray-on fire retarding is ineffective. Post fire investigations reveals the spray on fire retardant has scaled off and steel beams and concrete and steel floor slabs crack and allow flame spread. Lightweight bar joists should not be used to support floors in high-rise buildings. The National Fire Protection Association has shown unprotected steel bar joist fail after five or ten minutes of fire exposure. For life safety in high-rise buildings bring back the smoke proof tower. This allows people to escape fire using smoke free stairways.

17 Stairs and elevator shaft ways should be enclosed in masonry to prevent smoke spread. Heating ventilation and air condition HVAC systems should be provided by unit system serving only one or two floors. Central air system serving 10 or 20 floors creates shaft ways and duct systems that penetrate fire rated floors walls partitions and ceilings. Smoke spreads throughout ducts of central HVAC systems. The high rise building framework should be skeleton steel framing not center core steel column framing. There should be no bearing wall high rise construction. Reduce the size of open floor design. Increase the thickness of concrete in floor construction. The two or three inches of concrete over corrugated steel fails during most serious high rise fires and must be replaced. Automatic sprinklers should protect all high rise buildings. Firefighters can extinguish approximately 2,500 square foot of fire with one hose line. Two hose steams may quench 5,000 square feet of fire. The World Trade Center floor areas were 40,000 square feet in area. Federal, State and Port Authority buildings should comply with New York City building codes and actually in some cases should exceed them. Remember building codes are only minimum standards. Recommendations for constructing the new high rise buildings on ground zero