How to Calculate Your Grade You have completed 500 out of 700 total points Add together: Lecture exam 1 Lecture exam 2 Lab exam 1 Lab exam 2 Average of your 7 best quizzes (drop lowest) Divide by 500 REMEMBER: You must have at least a “C” = 68 in both lab and lecture separately to pass course

How to Calculate the Number of points you need to pass You need a total of 476 out of 700 points to get a C Take the total number of points you just calculated (the sum of 4 exams and quiz average) and subtract it from 476 The number you have is the total number of points you need If you divide that number by 2, you will see the approximate grade you’ll need on lab exam 3 and lecture exam 3. REMEMBER: the rules from previous page apply Have to have at least C in lecture and lab separately

Systems: Urinary and Digestive Organs of the Abdomen Systems: Urinary and Digestive

Urinary System Kidneys Ureters Urinary Bladder Urethra Purify blood Drain urine from kidney to bladder Urinary Bladder Store urine Urethra Drain urine from bladder to outside body pg 5

Kidneys: major excretory organs Remove toxins, metabolic waste, excess H2O, ions Urea, uric acid, creatinin Regulates volume + makeup of blood Maintains balance between Salts and water Acids and bases

Kidneys: Gross Anatomy Located superior lumbar region Posterior abdominal wall (T12-L3) Retroperitoneal Hilus Adrenal Gland: superomedial to kidney Renal Artery + Vein Innervation: branches of renal plexus pg 648

Kidneys: Gross Anatomy Renal Capsule Layer of tough CT Maintains shape Prevents spread of infection Adipose Capsule External to renal cap Perirenal fat Surrounded by fascia Keeps in place, cushions Pararenal Fat External to adipose cap pg 649

Kidney: Internal Anatomy Cortex Superficial Light, granular Part of functional unit Medulla Deep layer Darker Pyramid-cone shape Contain collecting tubule collect urine Pg 650

Kidney: Internal Anatomy Medullary Pyramid Base: against cortex Apex: inward Papilla = tip Drips urine into minor calyx Minor Calyx (calices) Cup-shaped divisions of major calices Surround papilla of pyramid Major Calyx (calices) Larger cup-shaped branches of renal pelvis Renal Pelvis Flat expansion of ureter Collects urine Pg 650

Kidney: Microscopic Anatomy Functional Unit Uriniferous Tubule Nephron Collecting tubule Waste is filtered out Waste products formed Located in lobes of kidneys pg 652

Ureters Slender tubes transport urine Run from kidneys to bladder Retroperitoneal Continuation of renal pelvis Enters bladder at oblique angle to prevent backflow Increased pressure in bladder closes distal end of ureter Ureters pg 648

Ureters: 3 Layers External: Adventitia Middle: Muscularis CT Middle: Muscularis Smooth Muscle Inner Longitudinal Outer Circular External longitudinal (on distal third) Peristalsis Inner: Mucosa Transitional epithelium

Bladder Muscular sac store and expel urine Location On pelvic floor Posterior Pubic symphysis Anterior Males = rectum Females = vagina, uterus Collapses + Expands Full  into abdominal cav Emptystays in pelvic cav Supplied by branches of internal iliac arteries + veins Innervated = branches of hypogastric plexus Bladder pg 648

Bladder: Internal Anatomy trigone pg 662 3 Layers Mucosa = transitional epithelium & lamina propria Detrusor Muscle: smooth muscle Inner/Outer longitudinal, Middle circular Fibrous Adventitia = CT Parietal peritoneum on superior surface instead

Urethra Drains urine from bladder to outside Female = short tube Males = long tube Prostatic, Membranous, Spongy (penile) portions Also carries semen Internal Urethral Sphincter Between bladder + urethra Thickening of detrusor (smooth muscle) External Urethral Sphincter Within urogenital diaphragm Skeletal muscle = voluntary control urination External Urethral Orifice Males = end of penile urethra Females = anterior to vaginal opening, posterior to clitoris

Urethra: Female vs. Male pg 662

Micturition = Urination Emptying bladder Stretch receptors in bladder respond when bladder full Parasympathetic signals detrusor muscle to contract and internal urinary sphincter to open (also inhibits sympathetic pathways that would prevent urination) Other brain receptors can inhibit urination by relaxing detrusor, and keep external urinary sphincter closed Voluntary contraction of abdominal wall muscles increases abdominal pressure Voluntary relaxation of external urethral sphincter See pg 663

Digestion System Alimentary Canal Accessory Organs Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Accessory Organs Teeth, Tongue Salivary Glands Gallbladder Liver Pancreas pg 5

Food Processing Activities Ingestion: taking food into mouth Propulsion: food moves through gut Swallowing + Peristalsis Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food Chewing, Churning, Segmentation Chemical Digestion: chemical breakdown Enzymes Absorption: Digestive end products into blood Defecation: Removal of waste products

Alimentary Canal Wall Internal = Mucosa + Submucosa Epithelium Lamina propria: contains MALT: mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue Muscularis mucosae Submucosa = CT w/elastic fibers, nerves, vessels Middle = Muscularis Externa Inner circular layer Outer longitudinal layer Creates sphincters Outer = Serosa or Adventitia

Innervation of Alimentary Canal 2 Plexuses: Myenteric & Submucosal Parasympathetic, Sympathetic, Visceral Sensory fibers Enteric Nervous System 100 million neurons in walls of alimentary canal = internal system Within above plexuses Independent reflex arcs Controls glandular secretion, peristalsis, segmentation Autonomic Nervous System speeds up or slows activity controlled by enteric system

Stomach “J” shape Cardiac Region Fundus (“dome”) Body Pylorus Junction esophagus Cardiac sphincter (Gastroesophageal) Fundus (“dome”) Under diaphragm Body Large, middle part Pylorus Distal portion Pyloric sphincter Greater Curvature Lesser Curvature Stomach Pg 624

Internal Anatomy of Stomach Mucosa Rugae: mucosal folds allow expansion Many intrinsic glands Goblet cells Gastric glands Typical Submucosa Muscularis externa Oblique layer Circular layer Pyloric sphincter Longitudinal layer Serosa pg 624

Function of Stomach Temporary storage of chyme Breakdown begins Churn, segmentation Pepsin proteins Absorption H2O, electrolytes Alcohol, other drugs Stays about 4 hours Hold from1.5-4 liters

Small Intestine: Parts + Functions Duodenum = proximal (5%) Jejunum = middle (~40%) Ileum = distal (~55%) Majority of enzymatic digestion Bile: emulsifier (gallbladder, liver) Enzymes (pancreas) Almost all nutrient absorption Segmentation Moves chyme around to increase contact with intestine walls Food takes about 3-6 hours to move through 2.7- 6 meters

Small Intestine: Internal Features Intestinal flora: produce vitamin K Simple columnar epithelium w/many modifications for absorption Lymph tissue in submucosa Muscularis externa has 2 layers Some parasympathetic innervation from vagus Arterial supply: Superior mesenteric Rt (cranial) pancreaticoduodenal

Small Intestine: Modifications of epithelium for absorption Length Increase surface area Plicae circularis Transverse ridges of mucosa Slow movement of chyme Villi Move chyme, increase contact Contain lacteals: remove fat Microvilli: Modifications decrease distally pg 629

Small Intestine Duodenum: Jejunum & Ileum: short, straight Mostly retroperitoneal Jejunum & Ileum: highly coiled Fewer modifications Hang by mesentery in peritoneal cavity Mesentery Arcades Arteries + veins Nerves Store fat Pg 614

Large Intestine Cecum Vermiform appendix Colon Rectum Anal Canal Ascending Transverse Descending Sigmoid Rectum Anal Canal pg 631

Large Intestine Functions: Internal Features: Absorb water and electrolytes Form, store and expel feces from body Internal Features: Intestinal flora No intestinal villi or modifications for absorption Many goblet cells Simple columnar epithelium except lower half of anal canal Significant Lymph tissue in mucosa & submucosa Muscularis mucosae has 2 layers Some parasympathetic innervation from vagus

Colon: External Features Taeniae coli 3 longitudinal strips thickening of longitudinal muscle maintain muscle tone create haustra Haustra saclike divisions Epiploic Appendages fat-filled pouches significance unknown pg 631

Cecum + Vermiform Appendix sac-like, blind pouch Ileocecal valve raised edges of mucosa prevents feces going back into ileum Vermiform Appendix same layers blind tube opens into cecum masses of lymph tissue pg 631

Colon Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon Right side Hepatic flexure (= right colic flexure) Transverse colon Across cavity Descending colon Left side Splenic flexure (= left colic flexure ) Sigmoid colon Enters pelvis “S” shape pg 631

Colon: Function Absorb H2O and electrolytes Some digestion by bacteria Mass Peristaltic Movements (2-3x day) Moves through in 12-24 hours 1.5 meters

Rectum + Anal Canal Rectum Anal Canal pg 632 descends into pelvis no teniae coli longitudinal muscle layer complete rectal valves Anal Canal passes through levator ani muscle releases mucus to lubricate feces Internal anal sphincter involuntary, smooth m. External anal sphincter voluntary, skeletal m. Stratified squamosal epithelium at lower half pg 632

Defecation Reflex Stretching of rectum wall initiates reflex Spinal cord - parasympathetic signals sigmoid colon + rectum to contract + anal sphincter to relax (involuntary) If not ready-reflex ends- rectum relaxes Reflex initiated again until you go! Contraction of abdominal muscles, levator ani + diaphragm assists defecation (voluntary)

Liver Largest gland (3 lbs) Location Highly vascular Some functions pg 610 Largest gland (3 lbs) Location Upper Right Quadrant Mostly under ribcage Highly vascular Some functions produce bile pick up glucose detoxify poison, drugs make blood proteins many others pg 635

Liver: External Features Diaphragmatic surface Right lobe (larger) Left lobe Falciform ligament Fissure between Visceral surface Quadrate lobe Caudate lobe Both part of left lobe pg 635

Liver: Visceral Surface pg 636 Hepatic Vein (into inferior vena cava) Porta Hepatis Hepatic Artery (from abdominal aorta ) Hepatic Portal Vein Carries nutrient-rich blood from stomach + intestines to liver Portal system = 2 capillary beds! Hepatic Ducts (carry bile)

Gallbladder Muscular sac Between right + quadrate liver lobes Bile is stored + concentrated Bile: breaks down fats = emulsification Bile Produced by liver Stored in gallbladder pg 610

Gallbladder continued Mucosa & lamina propria Simple columnar epithelium Expandable mucosal folds Smooth muscle layer Thick connective tissue Covered by serosa in places

Bile Ducts Cystic duct Hepatic duct Common Bile duct carries bile from gallbladder Hepatic duct carries bile from liver Common Bile duct joins cystic and hepatic carries bile into duodenum pg 628

Movement of Bile Bile secreted by liver continuously Hepatopancreatic (Vater) ampulla common bile + main pancreatic duct meet and enter duodenum Sphincter of Oddi around it closed when bile not needed for digestion Bile then backs up into gallbladder via cystic duct When needed gallbladder contracts, sphincters open Movement of Bile pg 628

Pancreas Retroperitoneal Gland Location Exocrine Endocrine digestive enzymes Endocrine hormone insulin hormone glucagon Location curve of duodenum extends to spleen pg 639

Ducts of Pancreas Main Pancreatic duct Accessory Pancreatic duct joins common bile duct enters duodenum Hepatopancreatic (Vater) ampulla Accessory Pancreatic duct enters duodenum in other location pg 628

Spleen Largest lymph organ Highly vascular Function remove blood-borne antigens (immune) remove and destroy old/damaged blood cells stores blood platelets In fetus: site of hematopoiesis pg 639

Arterial Blood Supply to Abdominal Viscera All branches of Abdominal Aorta Anastomoses Left + Middle colic Left + Right gastric Left + Right gastroepiploic Cranial + Caudal pancreaticoduodenal Deep Iliac Circumflex + Adrenolumbar STUDY HAND OUT! MUST KNOW WHAT SUPPLIES WHAT!!

Names give hints! Hepato = liver Pancreatico = pancreas Cystic = gallbladder Gastro = stomach Splenic = spleen Adreno = adrenal gl Lumbar = lumbar region Epiploic = membrane-covered Mesenteric = mesentery Duodenal = duodenum Ileo = ileum Colic = colon Rectal = rectum