Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chapter 17

I: Turks - Economy and Society of Nomadic Pastoralism Nomadic Pastoralists: keep and live off of herd animals, esp. in arid lands (e.g., steppes) Trade is important with settled peoples Also, led camel caravans between China and the Med.

I: Turks - Nomadic Society 2 social classes: nobles (semi-inherited, led and formed alliances, but didn’t really govern) and commoners (bravery in war -> nobles) Patriarchal, but women had higher status than in agricultural societies Tended herds (econ. function) -> status and influence

I: Turks - Nomadic Religion Early: shamanistic Later: many converted to religions of salvation: Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Manachaeism (also developed written script) With rise of Islam, most converted Late 10th century: Seljuk clan converted, migrated to Persia, and formed alliances with Abbasids (puppet gov’t) Between 10th and 14th centuries, most other Turkish clans converted to Islam

I: Turks - Military Organization Expansion – confederation of people under a khan (not direct control, through leaders of allied tribes) Strong cavalry (horse culture, archery) Coordinated movements, mobility, discipline

I: Turkish Empires – Seljuk Turks and the Abbasid Empire Lived along border of Abbasids for trade Then, many served in army and lived in empire By mid-11th century: Seljuk Sultan more powerful than Abbasid caliphs, and expanded control to Syria, Palestine, etc.

I: Seljuk Turks & the Byzantine Empire Early 11th century: migrations into Anatolia 1071: defeated Byzantines at Battle of Manzikert Many peasants supported them Set up political and social institutions , converted many to Islam

I: Ghaznavid Turks & the Sultan of Delhi Mahmud had led raids from Afghanistan into India 13th century: successors took over N. India as the Delhi Sultanate Army (with elephant corps) maintained borders but couldn’t spread into southern India Destroyed Hindu and Buddhist temples, shrines and encouraged conversion to Islam

II: The Mongol Empires From east and central Asian steppes Social organization based on families, clans, tribes Early 13th century: Chinggis (Genghis) Khan mastered steppe diplomacy (bravery in battle, loyalty to allies – sometimes, ability to ally with unaffiliated tribes) By 1206, united all Mongol tribes and became Chinggis Khan

II: Mongol Political Organization Statecraft policies: Broke up tribes & conscripted men into non-tribal units Chose military and political leaders by talent Successors established capital at Karakorum Army => power (despite small population): horse culture, bows, mobile, psychological warfare

II: Mongol Conquest N. China: beg. In 1211 by Chinggis Khan By 1220: controlled N. China, capital at Khanbaliq Persia: 1218, wanted trade/diplomatic relations -> Shah murdered merchants and envoy Revenge – defeated shah’s army and destroyed everything (leveled cities, massacred people, destroyed qanat system, killed the caliph)

II: Mongol Conquest 1227: Chinggis Khan died Laid foundation for vast empire, but left no central gov’t for administration (ruled through overlords)

II: The Mongol Empires (after C.K) Sons and grandsons struggled for power -> divided empire into 4 regional empires China, Khanate of Changhata in C. Asia, Ilkhanate of Persia, Golden Horde in Russia Constant tension between the khans of each

II: China and Kublai Khan Consolidated Mongol rule in China:ruled 1264-1294 Military leader, also interested in cultural matters (improved welfare, promoted religions) Attacked and conquered Southern Song Established Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) Tried to expand unsuccessfully (SE Asia, Japan)

II: Mongol Rule in China Did not adopt Chinese culture (saw them as “cultivators”) No intermarriage, Chinese could not learn Mongolian Brought in foreign administrators (Arabs, Persians, Europeans, Mongols) Dismantled Confucian education and exam system Religious tolerance: esp. supported Lamist Buddhism, despite keeping their shamanistic religion

II: The Golden Horde in Russia Conquered between 1237-1241 Did not occupy (preferred steppe), but exacted tribute until mid-1400s when Muscovy princes kicked them out

II: The Ilkhanate of Persia Kublai’s brother, Hulegu conquered Abbasids In 1258: took Baghdad and executed Caliph Tried, but failed to expand throughout SW Asia and Egypt Administration: Persians maintained order and collected taxes Adopted Persian culture: converted to Islam and became part of Persian society

II: The Mongols & Eurasian Integration Lots of destruction, but also increased interaction -> encouraged communication (courier network with relay stations to transmit news, gov’t orders) -> encouraged LD trade (safety through territories -> increase in volume and commercial investments) -> sent out diplomatic missions (communication between khans and other rulers)

II: The Mongols & Eurasian Integration (cont.) -> missionaries (Sufis, Lamist Buddhists, Nestorian Christians, Roman Catholics) -> resettlement: moved specialists (artisans, literate admin., etc.) from allies and conquered people to areas where they were needed

II: Decline of the Mongols in Persia Collapse of the Ilkhanate: Financial issues: excessive spending and overexploitation of the peasants; printed paper money to fix it -> failed and commerce stopped Factional struggles: 1335 – no heir -> local gov’ts formed

II: Decline of the Mongols in China Decline of the Yuan Dynasty: Economic: did not back up paper money -> lost value -> prices soared Factions and imperial assassinations, civil wars Plus, 1330s - spread of bubonic plague (facilitated by trade and communication) -> disrupted society -> depopulation and labor shortages Also, 1340s - rebellions and banditry ensued 1368: rebels captured Khanbaliq and Mongols returned to the steppes

III: After the Mongols: Tamerlane Turks restarted expansion Tamerlane: filled power vacuum left in Persia Charismatic leader -> attracted followers 1360s: eliminated rivals (defeat or alliance) 1370: took over Khanate of Chaghatai (capital = Samarkand)

III: After the Mongols: Tamerlane Led armies on campaigns of conquest: Persia, Golden Horde, India, SW Asia, Anatolia, and died on his way to China Again, conqueror, not governor – no imperial administration (ruled through allied tribal leaders sand overlords who used existing bureaucratic structures, collected taxes and tribute) Fell apart after his death (divided into 4 parts)

III: After the Mongols: Ottomans Turks in Anatolia: campaigns of conquest by Osman 1299: declared independence from Seljuk sultan; began fighting Byzantines (attracted followers) Continued to gain power and expand until 1402 when they were defeated by Tamerlane

III: After the Mongols: Ottomans By 1440s: recovered and ready to expand into Byzantine Empire 1453: Sultan Mehmed II sacked and captured Constantinople (-> Istanbul) By 1480: expanded throughout SE Europe, SW Asia, N. Africa