Language I: Structure Defining language: symbolic, rule-based system of communication shared by a community Elements of language: Phonemes: smallest units of sound (gesture) Morphemes: smallest units of meaning Syntax or grammar: rules of construction Properties of language: Arbitrariness Generativity Semanticity Generational transmission Displacement

Neuroscience of language Broca’s area/Wernike’s area Left anterior frontal (adjacent to Broca’s): semantic associative Angular gyrus: important in phonological storage; written words – internal speech

Language I Chomskyian approach to language: reaction to inadequacies of behavioral approach, argued for large ‘innate’ element to language development Problems with behaviorist view: Imitation and differential reinforcement – neglects creative use of language of ‘failures of reinforcement Deep structure, surface structure and transformational rules to connect each. Trans. Grammar too complicated to be learned.

Deep/surface structure and transformational grammar

Language II: Reading and text comprehension Saccadic eye movement studies indicate that reading must take place in less than 50msec How can processing be so efficient? Word superiority effect: letters in words more quickly processed than unconnected letters or letters presented alone Rayner’s (1975) text change studies: found that semantic changes affected text processing with 1-6 characters spaces while only graphic changes noticed 7-12 spaces away. Important point – planning of next saccade based on ‘predictions’ of upcoming text. Priming studies: show semantic spread of activation; further aiding predictive process. Studies with poor readings show deficiencies in saccade planning.

Word superiority effect

Rayner’s text-change studies the butter is jiggling the butler is jiggling (semantic change) the butter is giggling (semantic change) the butter is wiggling (graphic change)

Eye movements during reading

Lexical Decision Task Word or non-word RT measure FORK = word; DXMZ = non-word SIGN – FORK DXMZ – FORK SPOON – FORK (sig reduction in rt) Conclusion: related words stored more closely together in memory

Language II: Text comprehension Brandsford & Franks: sentence processing study showed that propositional content of sentences retained in LTM, not verbatim record. Note: new unrecognized sentences retained words from original sentences. The ants were in the kitchen; Ants ate the jelly. Jelly on the table; The ants in the kitchen ate the jelly on the table; Jelly was in the kitchen. Bartlett ‘war of the ghosts’ study: schematic processing of text narrative Schema: representation used to encode, organize, interpret and recall information Kintch’s model of reading: – prop content of sentence encoded into STM – Prop content of next sentence encoded and connected – If match, continue; if no match, search LTM for bridging assumption – Activation of goal schemata to guide encoding process – Increasing bridging assumptions complicates encoding process

Kintch’s model of text comprehension

Rocky Raccoon (Lennon/McCartney) Now somewhere in the black mountain hills of Dakota There lived a young boy named Rocky Raccoon And one day his woman ran off with another guy Hit young Rocky in the eye Rocky didn't like that He said I'm gonna get that boy So one day he walked into town Booked himself a room in the local saloon Rocky Raccoon checked into his room Only to find Gideon's bible Rocky had come equipped with a gun To shoot off the legs of his rival His rival it seems had broken his dreams By stealing the girl of his fancy Her name was Magil and she called herself Lil But everyone knew her as Nancy Now she and her man who called himself Dan Were in the next room at the hoe down Rocky burst in and grinning a grin He said Danny boy this is a showdown But Daniel was hot, he drew first and shot And Rocky collapsed in the corner, ah Now the doctor came in stinking of gin And proceeded to lie on the table He said Rocky you met your match And Rocky said, doc it's only a scratch And I'll be better I'll be better doc as soon as I am able And now Rocky Raccoon he fell back in his room Only to find Gideon's bible Gideon checked out and he left it no doubt To help with good Rocky's revival, ah Oh yeah, yeah

Language II: PDP model of reading PDP model characteristics: weighted connections between nodes; spreading activation; excitatory and inhibitory connections Both stimulus properties and top-down processes affect patterns of activation Text exists at 3 interconnected levels – Feature – Letter – Word Neurocognitive studies show frontal activation for semantic task; only occipital activation for visual tasks.

Connectionist or PDP model of memory

Language III: Evolution Animal studies of language suggest some linguistic capacity present in other species Honeybees – displacement Vervet monkey alarm calls – referential capacity (precursor to words) Ape language studies (primitive grammar), no speech, but manual language Pidgin to creole studies Evolution – possible manual to protolanguage to full-blown language progression

Studies in Animal Language A number of species have been studies: dolphins, parrots, whales, etc Most studies have involved nonhuman apes: Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Bonobos Why: close relatives of humans, big brains, highly social

History of Ape language studies Cross-fostering: raising an ape as a human baby 1950’s Keith and Cathy Hayes: Viki project, teaching a chimpanzee to speak. Big disaster. Beatrix and Alan Gardner: Washoe project, teaching an ape sign language

History of Ape language studies Francine Patterson and Koko: A gorilla learns sign language Herb Terrace and Nim Chimpsky

History of Ape language studies Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and the bonobo Kanzi

What do apes know about language? Some elementary syntax Some evidence of displacement word vocabulary Use is primarily utilitarian, not for sharing experience; 90% of Kanzi’s utterances are requests/commands About at level 2.5 child