1. Evolution of Language: Neanderthal Speech
One clue to the evolution of speech is the descent of the larynx which allows for the articulatory control of air.

2. Arch of Cranial Base: Indicates descended larynx
Earliest hominins (Australopiths) had cranial base similar to apes
Cranial base approximates human angle in Kabwe and Steinheim skulls (around 300,000 ybp)
Neanderthal cranium actually flatter than some older samples.

3. Hominin Evolutionary Chronology
5-7 mybp: split between chimp and hominin lines
5-4 mybp: emergence of earliest hominins – australopiths
2.5-2 mybp: emergence of genus Homo (first major brain size expansion
1.8 mybp: emergence of Homo erectus/ergaster (first evidence of human-like traits)
.5 mypb: emergence of Homo heidelbergensis (first of the archaic Homo sapiens; second major expansion in brain size
200,000 ybp: emergence of Homo sapiens, Neanderthals
35,000 ypb Upper Paleolithic revolution

4. Animal Language: Vervet Alarm Calls
Different alarm calls appear to be referential

5. Washoe Koko Nim Chimpsky
Ape Language Studies
Washoe Koko Nim Chimpsky
Fouts/Gardners Francine Patterson Herb Terrace

6. Kanzi: The talking Bonobo Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
Lexigram symbol language
Simple syntax
Spontaneous acquisition
Referential/symbolic understanding
90% utterances: requests/commands

7. Derek Bickerton: Catastrophic Evolution
Two steps: protolanguage – associated with increasing brain size
Full language – associated with cultural revolution in UP