Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics “Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and choice, is thought to aim at some good; . . . ” (NE I,1). What is the chief good we aim at? Answer: Happiness. Question: But how do you define happiness?

I, 4-5: Common Opinions on the Meaning of Happiness Happiness = PLEASURE? “pleasure” refers to physical enjoyment. Happiness = HONOR? Happiness = WEALTH? Happiness = CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE?

I, 6: Meaning and Types of “Good” Difficulty re: the Form of the Good. Honor truth more than our friends (Plato)! “Good” is an adjective used in many way re: Substances re: Accidents Non-relative goods: good in themselves Relative goods: good or useful for something else.

I,7: The Specific Human Good Happiness is a non-relative good: = good in itself. Relative goods are chosen for the sake of happiness. Characteristics of Happiness: self-sufficient desirable complete goal or end of action (final cause)

Argument for Nature of Happiness Everything has a natural function(s) IF it functions well, we call it “good.” Human beings have a function(s). Functioning is related to soul, as source of motion/action Living = functioning Living well = functioning well. Functioning well means to function with excellence = arete = virtue. Human excellence = functioning with virtue. In keeping with the highest and best functions.

Living = functioning Living well = functioning well. Functioning well means to function with excellence = arete = virtue. Human excellence = functioning with virtue in keeping with the highest and best functions.

I, 7: Definition of Happiness (Formal Cause) “Human good” [= happiness] is activity of soul [genus] in conformity with the best and most complete excellence. [specific difference]

Greek terms Happiness (ευδαιμονία - eudaimonia:) Activity of soul (ένεργεία ψυχής – energeia psuches According to excellence/virtue (άρετη – arete)

Happiness is: Happiness is a good of the soul. Happiness is for the noble and good person. Happiness requires external goods for life and human functioning to do good deeds Happiness obtained by some kind of learning/training.

I,13: Nature of Human Soul non-rational functions + rational functions / \ / \ / \ / \ nutrition appetite intellectual growth desires reproduction ↓ ↓ Moral Virtues Intellect. Virtues (or vices) (or vices)

Two Types of Virtues Virtues or excellences of character Are we born with them? How do we acquire them? By practice, habituation Virtues or excellences of the mind By studying, teaching, learning: formal/informal

Acquiring virtue: Moral virtue: It is a habit of character. How do you acquire a habit? Intellectual virtue: Acquired by teaching, study, and experience.

Do I have a virtue, e.g., courage? 1. Is it a habit? 2. Can you act with a certain ease in frightening situations? e.g.: speaking up when someone is insulting you or someone else in your presence?

Questions Does performing a good action mean you have the virtue? For example, giving a donation. How would you tell?

Questions Is virtue “pleasant”? Why? Can it be pleasant if it take effort? How?

II, 6: Definition of Virtue ( 1107 a 1-4) “(Moral) virtue” is a state of character [genus) 2) concerned with choice, 3) lying in a mean, 4) a mean relative to us, 5) this mean being established by reason, 6) in the way a person of practical wisdom would discern it.

III: Freedom and Choice Are we free? How do you know? Are you “free” when under peer pressure? To what extent? Are we free when very angry? Or feeling very lazy? What might limit freedom? What might limit responsibility?

III, 1-2: Human Action Voluntary Involuntary (= against our will) Mixed: partly voluntary, partly involuntary Non-voluntary (act of a human, but not a human action formally speaking)

Principle (standard) for Determining Degree of Freedom Human Actions (in terms of the source of motion/action) Voluntary (moved by self) / | \ With deliberation From From Passion and choice anger

III, 2 (cont) Involuntary Action (moved by outside source) / \ / \ Affecting Mind Affecting Will Ignorance Forced / \ Of end Of circumstances

Mixed Human Actions Mixed Human Actions / \ Regarding Regarding / \ Regarding Regarding Particular Action: Case in General: voluntary involuntary (e.g., fear)

Quiz, NE Book I, Nov. 24 1. What do all our actions aim at? 2. Which of Aristotle’s causes does #1 employ? 3. Name 3 popular views or ways of defining happiness. 4.Explain a weakness of one popular view. 5. Give Aristotle’s formal definition of happiness.