1 Language of Research Adapted from The Research Methods Knowledge Base, William Trochim (2006). & Methods for Social Researchers in Developing Counries, The Ahfad University for Women & Online Statistics Education: A Multimedia Course of Study, David M. Lane, Rice University.

2 Agenda Useful Terms Types of Research Time in Research Types of Relationships Variables Hypotheses 2

3 Useful Terms Social research is theoretical and empirical -Theoretical: concerned with testing theories or ideas about how the world works -Empirical: based on observations and measurements of reality Probabilistic –Inferences we make in social research have probabilities associated with them Causal

4 Types of Research Research studies can be –Descriptive: to describe what is going on or exists –Relational: to look at relationships between two or more variables –Causal: to determine whether a variable causes or affects one or more outcomes

5 Time in Research Cross-Sectional Study –Takes place at a single point in time. I.e. we are taking a cross-section of whatever we’re observing or measuring Longitudinal Study –Repeated measures or time series. –Repeated measures: two or few waves of measurements –Time series: many waves of measurement over time

6 Types of Relationships Nature of relationship –Correlational ≠ Causal –Third variable problem Patterns of relationship –None –Positive –Negative

7 Variables A variable is any entity that can take on different values –Age –Gender –Agreement An attribute is a specific value on a variable –Age: 1,2,3 –Gender: Male & Female –Agreement: 1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree

8 Variables Variables can be independent or dependent –Independent variable is what you manipulate (treatment, program, cause) –Dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable (effects, outcomes)

9 Hypotheses A tentative expression of expected relationship between 2 variables Alternative and Null –The hypothesis that you support: A & B are related –The hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes: A & B are not related One-tailed and two-tailed –Direction specified. Null: >5 Alternative: <5 –No direction specified. Null :5 Alternative: ≠5 9