Women in International Migration Regimes Between Coercion and Empowerment Christa Wichterich , FES, Berlin

New International Division of Labour Commodi-fication Restructuring Of Economies Cross-BorderMovement

Migration = Gendered Process … mediated by gendered norms, stereotypes, expectations, opportunities … mediated by gendered norms, stereotypes, expectations, opportunities … demand for gender specific labour e.g. domestics … demand for gender specific labour e.g. domestics … supply of gender specific labour e.g. nurses … supply of gender specific labour e.g. nurses migration process itself is gendered… women more vulnerable migration process itself is gendered… women more vulnerable Integration process is gendered Integration process is gendered Re-integration is gendered… cultural & social repercussions Re-integration is gendered… cultural & social repercussions

Complex & Changing Nexus of Push & Pull Economic crisis, loss of livelihood, poverty Economic crisis, loss of livelihood, poverty Change in domestic labour market, men loose jobs, new gender roles Change in domestic labour market, men loose jobs, new gender roles Discrimination, lack of chances Discrimination, lack of chances Coercion Coercion Hope for a good life Hope for a good life Demand of labour e.g. IT sector & care of the elderly  selective strategy of opening of borders & inclusion Demand of labour e.g. IT sector & care of the elderly  selective strategy of opening of borders & inclusion Transnational networks of migrants offer jobs to people at home Transnational networks of migrants offer jobs to people at home Migration industry: Labour agencies, brokers & traffickers make false promises & lure women into slavery Migration industry: Labour agencies, brokers & traffickers make false promises & lure women into slavery

Why? Global reason: inequalities between countries Global reason: inequalities between countries Individual reason: Poverty, loss of livelihood, economic crisis, conflict, violence, cultural norms Individual reason: Poverty, loss of livelihood, economic crisis, conflict, violence, cultural norms Survival Strategy: Survival Strategy: Search for livelihood, security & rights Distinction: voluntary  forced … Distinction: voluntary  forced … … coercion & choice are interlinked Agents of their life, decision makers regarding their future Agents of their life, decision makers regarding their future

Latest Trends in Migration More temporary and circular More temporary and circular More illegal More illegal More gendered or female More gendered or female More polarised: skilled & unskilled More polarised: skilled & unskilled Less share of refugees Less share of refugees

Feminisation of Transnat. Migration - Figures % of Women Women Number of Migrants (mio) mio migrants within China

Feminisation of Migration Change in goal: Earlier majority of women migrated as dependent family members (marriage, family unification) – now migrate as wage earners on their own Change in goal: Earlier majority of women migrated as dependent family members (marriage, family unification) – now migrate as wage earners on their own More visible in statistics & in public More visible in statistics & in public Specific female flows of migrant workers Specific female flows of migrant workers  Gender segregated labour market: Mostly unskilled informal jobs, new international division of labour

Global Care Chain 1) Nurses & doctors trained in the Philippines work in Saudi Arabia  brain drain  lack of medical personal in the Philippines 2) Middle-class women in the US, full time em- ployed, transfers care work in the household to undocumented migrant from Mexico whose chil- dren are taken care of by a relative  care drain  new internat. division of care work 3) Private households in Germany employ care takers from Poland for elderly & sick people  often deskilling, rotation or shuttle system

Contradictory Discourses & Policies Building new external borders & internal barriers  fear of competition in domestic labour market, xenophobia, racism Building new external borders & internal barriers  fear of competition in domestic labour market, xenophobia, racism Shift in discourse: focus on economic advantage: Shift in discourse: focus on economic advantage: - for the home country: export of unemployment, remittances  development effect, poverty reduction - for the receiving country: selective demand, supply of labour for specific sectors

Remittances 2005: 232 bill. US $ official money transfers 2005: 232 bill. US $ official money transfers 167 bill.US $ for developing countries 167 bill.US $ for developing countries Huge profits for financial service sector due to high fees for transnational money transfer (up to 20 %) Huge profits for financial service sector due to high fees for transnational money transfer (up to 20 %) Women: less income, remit higher share than men Women: less income, remit higher share than men - temporary migrants remit more - depends on family relations Gender specific use of remittances: Gender specific use of remittances: - men invest in consumer goods, - women invest in human development

Social Costs & Gains Violation of human rights, racism Violation of human rights, racism Sexual violence Sexual violence Lack of access to social security & health Lack of access to social security & health Wage discrimination, deskilling, downgrading Wage discrimination, deskilling, downgrading Social remittances: conservative values Social remittances: conservative values Brain/skills/care drain Brain/skills/care drain Recognition as breadwin- ner for the family Recognition as breadwin- ner for the family Personal freedom far away from family & cultural regime Personal freedom far away from family & cultural regime New transnational fami- lies, communities & networks New transnational fami- lies, communities & networks Social remittances: liberal values Social remittances: liberal values Brain gain Brain gain

Trafficking Trafficking = recruitment & transport “by means of threat, use of force or other forms of coercion” Trafficking = recruitment & transport “by means of threat, use of force or other forms of coercion” Presently 2,45 mio people enslaved + annually 1,2 mio people trafficked …. 80 % girls & women Presently 2,45 mio people enslaved + annually 1,2 mio people trafficked …. 80 % girls & women Main sectors of destination: prostitution, forced marriage, labour in sweatshops & agriculture Main sectors of destination: prostitution, forced marriage, labour in sweatshops & agriculture No clear distinction between forced & voluntary migration No clear distinction between forced & voluntary migration

Refugees, Displaced & Asylum Seekers 12,7 mio refugees (2005) = 7 % of all migrants 12,7 mio refugees (2005) = 7 % of all migrants 90 % of all refugees stay in developing countries 90 % of all refugees stay in developing countries Women lack physical safety & security during flight & in camps Women lack physical safety & security during flight & in camps asylum seekers asylum seekers Growing awareness of gender specific reasons for asylum Growing awareness of gender specific reasons for asylum However, little progress in gender specific asylum procedures However, little progress in gender specific asylum procedures

New Transnational Spaces for Women New neoliberal regimes of migration management, policies of selective opening of borders & integration, informed by demand of markets New neoliberal regimes of migration management, policies of selective opening of borders & integration, informed by demand of markets Individual practices & subjectivities between exploitation & empowerment Individual practices & subjectivities between exploitation & empowerment

Assumptions for Policies Consider migration as survival strategy & each migrant women as actor who struggles for livelihood & rights Consider migration as survival strategy & each migrant women as actor who struggles for livelihood & rights Migration is there to stay as long as inequality prevails Migration is there to stay as long as inequality prevails Each human being has “a right to have rights” Each human being has “a right to have rights” Search for concept of global citizenship & cosmopolitical rights Search for concept of global citizenship & cosmopolitical rights Struggle against social & economic inequality & against poverty Struggle against social & economic inequality & against poverty