Week 5 Feb. 16

 Reviewing the Literature  Academic Vocabulary IV ◦ Evaluative Language

 Where in your writing do you cite sources? ◦ Introduction? Methods? Results? Discussion? ◦ All are possible, but it depends on the field and type of writing  What are the purposes of citing? (besides plagiarism!) ◦ Acknowledge intellectual property rights ◦ Show respect for previous scholars ◦ Give your own arguments greater authority ◦ Help friends and colleagues (increases the “impact factor” of journals)impact factor (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 340)

 Tense choice implications are subtle ◦ Can indicate who is the agent or not ◦ Can make no reference to agency ◦ Can indicate the distance of the researcher to our own opinion or research ◦ Can indicate if the finding should be taken in the context of the single study or as a larger generalization.  Look at a journal you brought and find examples of this.  Now look at your own. P HO

 Huang (2007) investigated the causes of airport delays. ◦ Action (Huang does something) ◦ Developed ◦ Modeled ◦ Conducted ◦ studied  In Huang’s (2007) investigations, he concludes that….. ◦ Saying/thinking (Huang says/thinks something) ◦ Believes ◦ Assumes ◦ Posits ◦ Argues ◦ Opines ◦ Views ◦ Points ◦ Provides…  Past is often used to indicate a contrast of past belief to current: ◦ Huang (2007) concluded that…, but more recent investigations reveal…

 Integrated citations versus parenthetical citations: ◦ According to Suarez et al. (2010), the causes of business failure are closely related to the ratio of working capital, retained earnings, and sales. ◦ Fang’s research shows that reduced working capital and retained earnings are interrelated (Fang, 2007).  Why was the first integrated, and the second not?  What are other ways of giving credit?  Under what circumstances are one or the other preferred?

 Why vary citation patterns?  Give it a try ◦ The Origins of the First Scientific Articles The Origins of the First Scientific Articles

 Options for establishing a niche: ◦ A: Counter-claiming (something is wrong) ◦ B: Indicating a gap (something is missing) ◦ C: Raising a question or making an inference (something is unclear) ◦ D: Continuing a tradition (adding something)  Look at a journal you brought and find an how the author(s) established their niche.  Now look at your own. Was it the niche you intended? Stronger Weaker (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 348) P HO

 How to focus/synthesize/organize the previous finding? (pdf, p27-34 for example)pdf ◦ By possible relationships between the chosen constructs (e.g., a correlation between communication and satisfaction and job satisfaction) ◦ By possible mediating (intervening) and/or moderating variables that influence the relationships between chosen constructs ◦ By possible differences between groups in chosen constructs ◦ By possible gaps, inconsistencies, controversies and/or unanswered questions which form the basis for a new study ◦ By possible untested hypotheses or propositions in the chosen constructs (Kotze, 2007, p 26)

 Practical principles that can accomplish good organization (pdf, p34-40 for examples):pdf ◦ Use a “funnel approach” by starting with the broader context and then focus in on the specific topic and issue ◦ Carefully plan headings and subheadings that can ensure a logical flow of information (mind-maps can help in planning) ◦ Headings should be descriptive and informative (more than one word) ◦ Make sure that information under heading is in fact well related (Kotze, 2007, p 26)

 Practical principles that can accomplish clear style (pdf, p42-43 for examples):pdf ◦ Write to the level of an intelligent layperson (i.e., non-academic, no expertise in the discipline of the field), such as a 100 level class in your field. ◦ Always define unfamiliar constructs or technical terms when they are introduced the first time. ◦ Write as though your reader is skeptical about what you write, and you need to argue your case with clear evidence and reasons for your choices. (Kotze, 2007, p 41)

 Evaluative Language, when we return

 Negative openings for indicating a gap: ◦ “little” + noun  However, little information…  Little attention…  Little work… ◦ “few” + noun  However, few studies…  Few investigations…  Few attempts… ◦ No/none  No studies/data/calculations to date have…  None of these studies/findings/calculations have… P HO (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 350)

 Contrastive statement openings for indicating a gap: ◦ Research has tended to focus on …, rather than on… ◦ These studies have emphasized …, as opposed to… ◦ Although considerable research has been devoted to…, rather less attention has been paid to… (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 352)

 Consider the first two paragraphs of an article from the Journal of Materials Chemistry (PDF)PDF ◦ How many critique/evaluative expressions can you find? (write the expressions on your own paper) ◦ Are they strongly negative or slightly negative? ◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 1 (Establish a Research Territory)? ◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 2 (Establish a niche)? (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 354)

 Consider the introduction in a journal you brought: ◦ How many critique/evaluative expressions can you find? (write the expressions on your own paper) ◦ Are they strongly negative or slightly negative? ◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 1 (Establish a Research Territory)? ◦ Can you find the language that signaled Move 2 (Establish a niche)?  Now consider these same questions for your own introduction. (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 354)

 …remains elusive despite…  There are however very few analyses….  Yet, the literature has little empirical evidence…  …is far from sufficient…  Very little research has been done to answer the crucial question…  Has not been fully answered…. 

 Evaluative language can be used in claims about your own writing and about others’ writing. ◦ Phrases can weaken and strengthen ◦ Distance can weaken and strengthen ◦ Verbs can weaken and strengthen (appear, seem, tend)  Do you prefer to look at models (journals you brought) or your own writing? ◦ Look for this language in the intro (establishing a niche), in data commentary (remarking about your data), discussion (making final claims) P HO (Swales & Feak, 2012, p 160)

 …can be reasonably confident…  …may be…  …it would be useful to confirm…  It is some concern that…

 Grammar & wording  Literature review ◦ Goes too quickly to the study issue without situating it in the related research ◦ Insufficient review of the literature, causing the reviewer to note oversights & misunderstandings ◦ Personal definitions rather than giving attribution  Analysis & design ◦ Claims about results were problematic for the research design ◦ Sample size too small for the complexity and claims ◦ Causes and effects in the design not well addressed

 Continue to apply what you’ve learned in your editing.  Consider staying on contact with your peer from class or connect with someone else, both for encouragement and support.  Feel free to see the powerpoints from this workshop at