Extra Credit: What is the relevance of archaeology to today’s issues? - Worth up to 8 points added to high grade of test 1 & 2; words maximum -Open by a statement of how many classes you have missed and why you deserve extra-credit -Due: Tuesday (4/27) Some possible themes: - Long-term change of human groups, including dynamics of humans- environment (ecological/climate change and disaster); -Culture & Civilization as adaptations to environment, demography and other factors, rather than simply achievements of only some people; -Archaeology defines what constitutes civilization and provides novel instances of human achievements; -Understanding and valorizing cultural diversity

ANDEAN CIVILIZATION

Cultural and biological adaptations to highland Andean Environments: more blood that is more viscous and richer in red cells, a heart that is proportionately larger, and specially adapted, larger lungs, with an enhanced capacity to take in oxygen from the thin atmosphere. Terraced and irrigation agriculture, specialized crops, drought resistance, coca chewing to reduce fatigue and metabolize carbohydrates, providing greater energy

Late Preceramic: 3000 to 1800 BC Initial (ceramic) Period: 1800 to 400 BC Three Horizon and Two Intermediate Periods Early Horizon (Integration): 400 to 200 BC Early Intermediate (Regionalism): 200 BC to AD 650 Middle Horizon (Integration): AD Late Intermediate (Regionalism): AD Late Horizon (Inka; integration): AD Chronology of Central Andes

Late Preceramic “The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization” (Moseley 1975): “Maritime Hypothesis” -Rich marine resources provided basis for early settled communities and complex societies, such as Caral, Aspero, and El Paraiso, On Peru’s desert coast - Ample evidence of Industrial crops (cotton, Gourds, reeds) but less Evidence of food crops - Also, El Nino (natural disaster) and drought

Caral The first urban center in the Americas, covers 66 ha (163 acres); by 2400 BC it was the capital of a regional polity in the Supe River, with various temple structures facing a central plaza, the largest of which, the “Piramide Mayor” was 160x150 m (525x492 ft) and 18 m (59 ft) high.

Caral’s Amphitheater

El Paraiso

Aspero, with six substantial platforms up to 8 m (18ft) high, surrounded by 15 ha (37 acres) of deep refuse. Uppermost levels of two platforms date to ca BC Late Preceramic U-shaped

Initial Period ceremonial complex at Sechin Alto, includes the largest monument in the Americas for this time (1800 BC) After a millennium of agricultural expansion, several centuries of drought was an important factor in the abandonment of these centers, after 800 BC U-shaped temple Sunken circular Courts/plazas

Cerro Sechin Temple shows ample evidence of warfare

Chankillo, ca, 400 BC

Chavín de Huantar Early Horizon

The main complex of masonry buildings, called the Castillo, composed of (a) New Temple and (c) Old Temple U-shaped plaza and sunken circular courtyard The “Lanzon” in the subterranean Gallery (b) U-shaped plaza with sunken circular courtyard

The “Staff God” Chavin art and iconography, the Chavin “cult,” spread throughout much of Central Andes in the Early Horizon, although uncertain degree of political and economic integration

Paracas, South-Central Coast Necropolis of elite burials in subterranean vaults with elaborate mummy bundles and exquisite fabrics in dazzling colors

Gallinazo Group, vast sprawl of collapsed adobe brick buildings, estimated to contain some 30,000 rooms and compartments Early Intermediate Period: Gallinazo Culture in northern Peru, notable for platform mounds and extensive irrigation in coastal river valleys

The Moche of northern coastal Peru

Extremely elaborate art and iconography that provides details on diverse aspects of Moche culture Painted murals from the Huaca del Luna

Moche rulers lived in opulent residences atop the Huaca del Sol, which measured 340 x 160 m (1115 x 525 ft) and over 40 m (130 ft), one of the largest mounds ever constructed in South America Adobe bricks used in construction of the Huaca del Sol had “makers marks” that identified communities of corvée laborers

Marching prisoners Painted murals at El Brujo

'blackened residue' in a Moche goblet was human blood (Bourget and Newman, 1998) The “Presentation Theme” Moche ideological themes expressed in iconography include battle between supernatural beings, death and burial of a king, and teams of kuraka (elite) warriors

Moche elite (kuraka) burial at Sipán

Moche semi-divine warrior king Throughout Andean civilization, kuraka class ruled as divine intermediaries between heaven and earth A massive El Nino flood and drought between AD diminished the power and integration of the Moche state, which disappeared ca. AD

The Nazca polity (south coast) was relatively small in population, but produced ‘geoglyphs,’ which have caused wild speculation, and include >1000 km of straight lines, >300 geometric figures, and dozens of animal figures

MIDDLE HORIZON: WARI & TIWANAKU

Tiwanaku

The Gateway of the Sun at Tiwanaku; with staff-god (similar to Early Horizon Chavin deity), cut from a single block of stone

Ruling kuraka at Tiwanaku stressed imposing temple mounds, gateways, and stelae, which were eschewed by their northern Wari neighbors, although Wari came to adopt Tiwanaku pantheon Faith in both religion and government was undermined after ca. AD 1050, after several centuries of drier climate (drought)

Contact and interaction between upland Wari center of Cerro Baul and mid-valley Tiwanaku center of Omo in the Moquequa valley

Reed boat in Lake Titicaca

Rectangular compounds, or ciudadelas, at Chan Chan, capital city of the Chimor empire, the second largest empire in pre-Columbian Americas, which was subjugated by Inca ca LATE INTERMEDIATE: CHIMOR Taycanamu: semi-mythical ancestral founder of Chan Chan who arrived by sea

Chimor's paramount rulers, who probably ruled as god-kings, lived in enormous enclosures called ciudadelas and held court in rooms called audiencias

At the time of European contact, the whole Andean area was under the control of the Inca empire The Inca empire or “Land of the Four Quarters” (Tawantinsuyu) had four major geographical territories, known as suyu, composed of 80 political provinces. It was linguistically diverse, but used a lingua franca called Runa Simi (Quechua). The Inca traced their foundation to a venerated ancestor named Manco Capac, but the expansion of the Inca empire was initiated by Pachacuti, the seventh potentate, and his son and grandson LATE HORIZON: INCA

The capital city of Cuzco, the navel of the universe, was constructed in the shape of a Puma. It was dominated by the temple-fortress of Sacsahuaman and the residences of royal lineages (kanchas), the most opulent of which was the Coricancha, with a gold-bedecked “House of the Sun” and silver adorned temple of the moon Sacsahuaman

Sacsahuaman, fort-like temple crowning the heights of the imperial capital; made by a rotating force of 20,000 corvée laborers over several decades

The ceque system

Inca writing: the khipu

30,000 to 40,000 km (18,600-24,800 miles) of thoroughfares and trunk lines

Machu Picchu Inca road

Inca bridges Inca tunnel

Inca political economy depended on agricultural taxation, textile tribute, work draft (corvée labor) and required tribute from both men and women Andean peoples, like the Inca, developed both cultural and biological adaptations to the high elevations of the Andes, such as terraced agriculture, irrigation, heightened lung capacity, greater amounts of red-blood cells, and chewing coca with quinoa, to deal with fatique

Machu Picchu, the Versailles-like rural palace and estate made by the emperor Pachacuti, was rediscovered by American archaeologist Hiram Bingham in 1911

The Inca emperor was decimated by a smallpox pandemic in the 1520s, which triggered a seven-year civil war between rival claimants to the throne. As Atahualpa marched south to claim Cuzco, he was intercepted, kidnapped, ransomed, and killed by Francisco Pizarro’s forces.