Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: The study of structure Subdivisions: Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy) Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology) Developmental (e.g., embryology)

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Essential tools for the study of anatomy: Mastery of anatomical terminology Observation Manipulation Palpation Auscultation

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Physiology: The study of function at many levels Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Essential tools for the study of physiology: Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular) Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) Basic chemical principles

Principle of Complementarity Anatomy and physiology are inseparable. Function always reflects structure What a structure can do depends on its specific form

___________ is the study of the body’s structure. Histology Anatomy Embryology Physiology Answer: b. Anatomy

__________ is the study of the body’s function. Histology Anatomy Embryology Physiology Answer: d. Physiology

hierarchical organization When the anatomy of a body part is intimately tied to its specific function, scientists call this the principle of ___________. hierarchical organization complementary nature of structure and function homeostasis negative feedback Answer: b. complementary nature of structure and function

Levels of Structural Organization Chemical: atoms and molecules Cellular: cells and their organelles Tissue: groups of similar cells Organ: contains two or more types of tissues Organ system: organs that work closely together Organismal: all organ systems

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1 Organelle Atoms Molecule Smooth muscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1 Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Smooth muscle tissue Cardiovascular system 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Heart Blood vessels Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems. 6 5 Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. Figure 1.1

Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1 Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Figure 1.1, step 1

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1 Organelle Atoms Molecule Smooth muscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1 Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Figure 1.1, step 2

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Organelle Atoms Molecule Smooth muscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1 Smooth muscle tissue 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Figure 1.1, step 3

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Organelle Atoms Molecule Smooth muscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1 Smooth muscle tissue Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. 3 Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Figure 1.1, step 4

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 2 Organelle Atoms Molecule Smooth muscle cell Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 2 Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1 Smooth muscle tissue Cardiovascular system 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Heart Blood vessels Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. 5 Figure 1.1, step 5

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1 Organelle Atoms Molecule Smooth muscle cell 2 Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. 1 Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Smooth muscle tissue Cardiovascular system 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Heart Blood vessels Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Epithelial tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems. 6 5 Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. Figure 1.1, step 6

Which of the following is a logical organization? Atoms, cells, molecules, tissues Molecules, atoms, cells, tissues Atoms, tissues, molecules, cells Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues Answer: d. Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues

Overview of Organ Systems Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems

(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and Hair Skin Nails (a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands. Figure 1.3a

Protects and supports body organs, Bones Joint (b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals. Figure 1.3b

Allows manipulation of the environment, Skeletal muscles (c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Main- tains posture, and produces heat. Figure 1.3c

As the fast-acting control system of Brain Nerves Spinal cord (d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Figure 1.3d

Glands secrete hormones that regulate Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Thymus Adrenal gland Pancreas Testis Ovary (e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. Figure 1.3e

(f) Cardiovascular System Heart Blood vessels (f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood. Figure 1.3f

(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels Red bone marrow Thymus Lymphatic vessels Thoracic duct Spleen Lymph nodes (g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body. Figure 1.3g

(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with Nasal cavity Pharynx Bronchus Larynx Trachea Lung (h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. Figure 1.3h

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for Oral cavity Esophagus Liver Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus (i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Figure 1.3i

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Urethra (j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood. Figure 1.3j

(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System Mammary glands (in breasts) Prostate gland Ovary Penis Testis Ductus deferens Scrotum Uterine tube Uterus Vagina (k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. Figure 1.3k-l

The __________ level of organization is the main theme presented in this book. cellular tissue organ organ system Answer: d. organ system

Organ Systems Interrelationships All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions

Figure 1.2 Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces) Respiratory system Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide Food O2 CO2 Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs Blood CO2 O2 Urinary system Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions Heart Nutrients Interstitial fluid Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment Feces Urine Figure 1.2

Necessary Life Functions Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments Plasma membranes Skin Movement (contractility) Of body parts (skeletal muscle) Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)

Necessary Life Functions Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli Withdrawal reflex Control of breathing rate Digestion Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs Absorption of simple molecules into blood

Necessary Life Functions Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells Catabolism and anabolism Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion Urea, carbon dioxide, feces

Necessary Life Functions Reproduction Cellular division for growth or repair Production of offspring Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism

Survival Needs Nutrients Oxygen Chemicals for energy and cell building Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins Oxygen Essential for energy release (ATP production)

Normal body temperature Survival Needs Water Most abundant chemical in the body Site of chemical reactions Normal body temperature Affects rate of chemical reactions Appropriate atmospheric pressure For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

Maintaining boundaries Metabolism Reproduction (organismal) Excretion Of the eight necessary life functions, which of the following is not required for an individual’s survival? Maintaining boundaries Metabolism Reproduction (organismal) Excretion Answer: c. Reproduction (organismal)

One survival need of humans is appropriate atmospheric pressure One survival need of humans is appropriate atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes where atmospheric pressure is lower, you might expect that oxygen acquisition would ____________. decrease increase twofold increase threefold remain unchanged Answer: a. decrease

Homeostasis Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes A dynamic state of equilibrium

Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables) Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones

Components of a Control Mechanism Receptor (sensor) Monitors the environment Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables) Control center Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained Receives input from receptor Determines appropriate response

Components of a Control Mechanism Effector Receives output from control center Provides the means to respond Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)

Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Control Center Afferent pathway Efferent pathway 2 Receptor Effector 5 Receptor detects change. Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level. 1 IMBALANCE Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE IMBALANCE Figure 1.4

Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE 1 IMBALANCE Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE IMBALANCE Figure 1.4, step 1

Receptor detects change. 2 Receptor Receptor detects change. 1 IMBALANCE Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE IMBALANCE Figure 1.4, step 2

Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. 3 Control Center Afferent pathway 2 Receptor Receptor detects change. 1 IMBALANCE Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE IMBALANCE Figure 1.4, step 3

Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Control Center Afferent pathway Efferent pathway 2 Receptor Effector Receptor detects change. 1 IMBALANCE Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE IMBALANCE Figure 1.4, step 4

Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector. 4 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Control Center Afferent pathway Efferent pathway 2 Receptor Effector 5 Receptor detects change. Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level. 1 IMBALANCE Stimulus produces change in variable. BALANCE IMBALANCE Figure 1.4, step 5

The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus Negative Feedback The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus Examples: Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism) Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)

Temperature-sensitive Temperature-sensitive Control Center (thermoregulatory center in brain) Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors Afferent pathway Efferent pathway Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain Effectors Sweat glands Sweat glands activated Response Evaporation of sweat Body temperature falls; stimulus ends Stimulus Body temperature rises BALANCE Stimulus Body temperature falls Response Body temperature rises; stimulus ends Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain Effectors Skeletal muscles Efferent pathway Afferent pathway Shivering begins Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center Control Center (thermoregulatory center in brain) Figure 1.5

Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH Receptors sense decreased blood volume Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood

Which of the following is an example of a negative feedback mechanism? During labor, as uterine contractions begin, levels of the hormone, oxytocin, continuously rise to further stimulate more contractions. The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormone under the influence of the hormone TSH. TSH release decreases when thyroid hormone levels reach their set point. An individual who is incapable of synthesizing thyroid hormone will often develop an enlarged thyroid gland due to continuous TSH stimulation. Answer: b. The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormone under the influence of the hormone TSH. TSH release decreases when thyroid hormone levels reach their set point.

The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus Positive Feedback The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect Usually controls infrequent events e.g.: Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

1 3 2 4 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall. Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 3 Released chemicals attract more platelets. Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. 2 Positive feedback loop Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed. 4 Platelet plug forms. Figure 1.6

1 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall. Positive feedback cycle is initiated. Figure 1.6, step 1

1 2 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall. Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 2 Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. Figure 1.6, step 2

1 3 2 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall. Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 3 Released chemicals attract more platelets. Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. 2 Positive feedback loop Figure 1.6, step 3

1 3 2 4 Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall. Positive feedback cycle is initiated. 3 Released chemicals attract more platelets. Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals. 2 Positive feedback loop Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed. 4 Platelet plug forms. Figure 1.6, step 4

Homeostatic Imbalance Disturbance of homeostasis Increases risk of disease Contributes to changes associated with aging May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)

Standard anatomical body position: Anatomical Position Standard anatomical body position: Body erect Feet slightly apart Palms facing forward

Cephalic Upper limb Frontal Acromial Orbital Brachial (arm) Nasal Antecubital Oral Antebrachial (forearm) Mental Cervical Carpal (wrist) Manus (hand) Thoracic Palmar Axillary Pollex Mammary Digital Sternal Abdominal Lower limb Umbilical Coxal (hip) Pelvic Femoral (thigh) Inguinal (groin) Patellar Crural (leg) Pubic (genital) Fibular or peroneal Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Thorax Metatarsal Abdomen Digital Back (Dorsum) Hallux (a) Anterior/Ventral Figure 1.7a

Table 1.1

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Two major divisions of body: Regional Terms Two major divisions of body: Axial Head, neck, and trunk Appendicular Limbs Regional terms designate specific areas

Cephalic Upper limb Frontal Acromial Orbital Brachial (arm) Nasal Antecubital Oral Antebrachial (forearm) Mental Cervical Carpal (wrist) Manus (hand) Thoracic Palmar Axillary Pollex Mammary Digital Sternal Abdominal Lower limb Umbilical Coxal (hip) Pelvic Femoral (thigh) Inguinal (groin) Patellar Crural (leg) Pubic (genital) Fibular or peroneal Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Thorax Metatarsal Abdomen Digital Back (Dorsum) Hallux (a) Anterior/Ventral Figure 1.7a

Upper limb Cephalic Acromial Otic Brachial (arm) Occipital (back of head) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm) Cervical Back (dorsal) Manus (hand) Scapular Metacarpal Vertebral Digital Lumbar Lower limb Sacral Femoral (thigh) Gluteal Popliteal Perineal (between anus and external genitalia) Sural (calf) Fibular or peroneal Pedal (foot) Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum) Calcaneal Plantar (b) Posterior/Dorsal Figure 1.7b

Body Planes Plane: Flat surface along which body or structure is cut for anatomical study

Midsagittal (median) plane Body Planes Sagittal plane Divides body vertically into right and left parts Produces a sagittal section Midsagittal (median) plane Lies on midline Parasagittal plane Not on midline

Frontal (coronal) plane Body Planes Frontal (coronal) plane Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts Transverse (horizontal) plane Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts Produces a cross section Oblique section Cuts made diagonally

Median (midsagittal) plane Frontal plane Median (midsagittal) plane Transverse plane (a) Frontal section (through torso) (b) Transverse section (through torso, inferior view) (c) Median section (midsagittal) Pancreas Aorta Spleen Left and right lungs Liver Heart Spleen Liver Spinal cord Rectum Intestines Body wall Stomach Arm Vertebral column Subcutaneous fat layer Figure 1.8

Anatomical Variability Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but: Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place Small muscles may be missing

Body Cavities Dorsal cavity Two subdivisions: Protects nervous system Cranial cavity Encases brain Vertebral cavity Encases spinal cord

Body Cavities Ventral cavity Houses internal organs (viscera) Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm): Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity

Cranial cavity Cranial cavity (contains brain) Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity Vertebral cavity Superior mediastinum Dorsal body cavity Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs) Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord) Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) Diaphragm Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera) Abdomino- pelvic cavity Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum) (a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view Figure 1.9a-b

Thoracic cavity subdivisions: Ventral Body Cavities Thoracic cavity subdivisions: Two pleural cavities Each houses a lung Mediastinum Contains pericardial cavity Surrounds thoracic organs Pericardial cavity Encloses heart

Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions: Ventral Body Cavities Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions: Abdominal cavity Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver Pelvic cavity Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

Cranial cavity Cranial cavity (contains brain) Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity Vertebral cavity Superior mediastinum Dorsal body cavity Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs) Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord) Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) Diaphragm Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera) Abdomino- pelvic cavity Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum) (a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view Figure 1.9a-b

Serous Membrane (Serosa) Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid Parietal serosa lines internal body walls Visceral serosa covers the internal organs

(comparable to parietal serosa) Outer balloon wall (comparable to parietal serosa) Air (comparable to serous cavity) Inner balloon wall (comparable to visceral serosa) Heart Parietal pericardium Pericardial space with serous fluid Visceral pericardium (b) The serosae associated with the heart. Figure 1.10a-b

Abdominopelvic Regions Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists

Right upper Left upper quadrant quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ) Right lower (RLQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ) Figure 1.11

Abdominopelvic Quadrants Divisions used primarily by medical personnel

Figure 1.12 Liver Diaphragm Right hypochondriac region Left Epigastric region Gallbladder Stomach Right lumbar region Left lumbar region Ascending colon of large intestine Transverse colon of large intestine Umbilical region Small intestine Descending colon of large intestine Cecum Right iliac (inguinal) region Hypogastric (pubic) region Left iliac (inguinal) region Initial part of sigmoid colon Appendix Urinary bladder (a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs Figure 1.12

Other Body Cavities Oral and digestive cavities Nasal cavity Orbital cavities Middle ear cavities Synovial cavities

If someone has broken a leg, he or she has damaged the ________ division of the body. dorsal appendicular superficial axial Answer: b. appendicular

The __________ division of the body is necessary for supporting life. axial superficial appendicular appendage Answer: a. axial

The term ___________ refers to internal organs, while the term _________ refers to body cavity walls. serosa; pleural visceral; ventral serosa; parietal visceral; parietal Answer: d. visceral; parietal