Improving Adolescent Literacy Through Quality Instruction Nancy Frey, Ph.D. PPT at www.fisherandfrey.com Click “Resources”

PPT at www.fisherandfrey.com Click “Resources” Videos on YouTube’s FisherandFrey Channel http://www.youtube.com/user/fisherandfrey

Health Sciences High and Middle College

Best School in the Universe

Essential Questions Quarterly schoolwide questions foster interdisciplinary connections

Early Predictors for Passing (or Failing) the CAHSEE Grade Point Average Absences Classroom Behavior These are present as early as fourth grade Zau, A. C., & Betts, J. R. (2008). Predicting success, preventing failure: An investigation of the California High School Exit Exam. Sacramento, CA: Public Policy Institute of California.

There are some myths in education…

0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.2 Medium 0.8 0.1 High 0.9 Low 0.0 1.0 Teacher effects 1.1 -0.1 Developmental effects Negative 1.2 -0.2 Reverse effects Zone of desired effects Standard error = n/a Rank: 136/136 Number of meta-analyses: 7 Number of studies: 207 Number of participants: 13,938 Retention: d = - 0.16 Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses related to achievement. New York: Routledge.

0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.2 Medium 0.8 0.1 High 0.9 Low 0.0 1.0 Teacher effects 1.1 -0.1 Developmental effects Negative 1.2 -0.2 Reverse effects Zone of desired effects Std. error = 0.027 (low) Rank: 88/136 Number of meta-analyses: 5 Number of studies: 161 Number of effects: 295 Number of participants: 105,282 Homework: d = .29 Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses related to achievement. New York: Routledge.

… and some truths as well.

Small group learning: d = 0.49 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.2 Medium 0.8 0.1 High 0.9 Low 0.0 1.0 Teacher effects 1.1 -0.1 Developmental effects Negative 1.2 -0.2 Reverse effects Zone of desired effects Standard error = n/a Rank: 48/136 Number of meta-analyses: 2 Number of studies: 78 Number of participants: 3,472 Small group learning: d = 0.49 Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses related to achievement. New York: Routledge.

Meta-cognitive Strategies: d = 0.69 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.2 Medium 0.8 0.1 High 0.9 Low 0.0 1.0 Teacher effects 1.1 -0.1 Developmental effects Negative 1.2 -0.2 Reverse effects Zone of desired effects Standard error = 0.18 Rank: 13/136 Number of meta-analyses: 2 Number of studies: 63 Number of participants: 5,028 Meta-cognitive Strategies: d = 0.69 Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses related to achievement. New York: Routledge.

Skill is the ability to apply concepts when not prompted to do so.

Reciprocal Teaching: d = 0.74 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.2 Medium 0.8 0.1 High 0.9 Low 0.0 1.0 Teacher effects 1.1 -0.1 Developmental effects Negative 1.2 -0.2 Reverse effects Zone of desired effects Standard error = n/a Rank: 9 /136 Number of meta-analyses: 2 Number of studies: 38 Number of participants: 677 Reciprocal Teaching: d = 0.74 Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses related to achievement. New York: Routledge.

Disciplinary Literacy The Case for Disciplinary Literacy

Common Core State Standards

“Fewer, Clearer, Higher” Purpose of the newly designed standards “Fewer, Clearer, Higher”

CCSS calls for 6 shifts More informational texts Shared responsibility for Literacy with Science, History/Social Studies, and Technical Subjects Increased text complexity Text-dependent questions Argumentation with text-based evidence Focus on academic vocabulary 6 significant changes in ELA (coleman)

“Read like a detective, write like a reporter.”

Learning in a New Century requires all of these Partnership for 21st Century Learning @ www.p21.org Life and Career Skills Learning and Innovation Skills Information, Media, and Technology Skills Core Subject Knowledge Learning in a New Century requires all of these

Expository Persuasive Narrative

Argumentation and Discussion Close Reading Argumentation and Discussion Extended Writing

Why Can’t the English Teachers Teach This Stuff? Reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing Literacy is utilized in all content areas Language is specialized in each area All learning occurs through language

Literacy=Language Language=Learning

Standards 6-12: Disciplines Dominate 25 Science History Math English Reading Science articles Primary source documents Extended word problems Novels, speeches, essays Writing Lab reports Essays Explaining one’s thinking Research papers Language Disciplinary vocabulary Differing points of view Public defense and rationales Author’s word choice for mood, tone, motif 25

Increasing Specialization of Literacy This pyramid illustrates the development of literacy. The pyramid base represents highly generalizable basic skills entailed in all reading tasks, (decoding skills, print and literacy conventions, recognition of high-frequency words, basic punctuation, etc). Most kids master these in the primary grades, and even those who struggle tend to master them before high school entry. As students progress, more sophisticated skills develop. These skills are not as widely applicable to different texts and reading situations, but neither are they linked to particular disciplinary specializations. They include decoding multisyllabic words, less common punctuation (such as split quotes), knowing more vocabulary including words not common in oral language, developing the cognitive endurance to maintain attention to extended discourse, monitoring comprehension, and using fix-up procedures such as rereading. They gain access to more complex forms of text organization, and begin to use author purpose as a tool for critical response. Most students learn these by the end of middle school, but many schoolers struggle with them. In high school, some students even begin to master more specialized reading routines/language uses, but these new routines, though powerful, tend to be constrained in their applicability to most reading tasks. The constraints on the generalizability of literacy skills for more advanced readers — symbolized here by the narrowing of the pyramid — are imposed by the increasingly disciplinary and technical turn in the nature of literacy tasks. Although most students manage to master basic and even intermediate literacy skills, many never gain proficiency with these more advanced skills. Progressing higher in the pyramid means learning more sophisticated, but less generalizable, skills and routines. Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008 26

What makes literacy hard in the disciplines? The goals of reading and writing and the approaches to reading and writing are different depending on the content area. The texts are written differently. Mathematics Science History/Social Studies 27

Math Reading Goal: arrive at “truth” Importance of “close reading” an intensive consideration of every word in the text Rereading a major strategy Heavy emphasis on error detection Precision of understanding essential Conclusions subject to public argument For example, during think-alouds, the mathematicians emphasized rereading and close reading as two of their most important strategies. One of the mathematicians explained that, unlike other fields, even “function” words were important. “‘The’ has a very different meaning than ‘a,’” he explained. Students often attempt to read mathematics texts for the gist, or general idea, but this kind of text cannot be appropriately understood without close reading. Math reading requires a precision of meaning, and each word must be understood specifically in service to that particular meaning. In fact, the other mathematician noted that it sometimes took years of rereading for him to completely understand a particular proof. The mathematicians we studied were theoretical rather than applied mathematicians. In their field, errorless proofs are by their very nature true, and the purpose of their work is to create these proofs; hence, to create truth. Because proofs must be error free, they are read carefully in order to discover any possible error. Every word matters. Rereading is essential. One mathematician said, “I try to determine whether it’s [the solution to the problem] correct. That’s the important criteria, and it’s by no means assumed. It would be unusual to read a paper like this and not find something incorrect.” This mathematician is illustrating the belief that truth (correctness within the confines of a particular problem) is attainable if one can determine an error-free solution. However, errors are easy to make, so vigilance is required. 28

Mathematics Text 1.1 Introduction to Linear Equations A linear equation in n unknowns x1, xx…, xn is an equation of the form a1x1 + a2x2 +…+ anxn = b, where a1, a2,…,an, b are given real numbers For example, with x and y instead of x1 and x2, the linear equation 2x + 3y = 6 describes the line passing through the points (3, 0) and (0, 2). Similarly, with x, y and z instead of x1, x2 and x3 the linear equation 2x + 3y + 4z = 12 describes the plan passing through the points (6, 0, 0), (0, 4, 0), (0, 0, 3). A system of m linear equations in n unknowns x1, x2, …, xn is a family of linear equations 29

Look inside the science text… Value on linking findings to other scientific principles Transformation of text information to another visual representation Marshaling background knowledge The chemists were most interested in the transformation of information from one form to another. That is, when reading prose, they were visualizing, writing down formulas, or if a diagram or a chart were on the page, going back and forth between the graph and the chart. One chemist explained, “They give you the structure, the structure of the sensor is given, so I was looking at the picture as I was reading, and I tried to relate what was in the picture to what they were saying about how mercury binds to one part of the molecule.” This explanation, corroborated by the chemists’ other comments, helped us to understand that in chemistry, different or alternative representations (e.g., pictures, graphs or charts, text, or diagrams) of an idea are essential for a full understanding of the concepts. These various representations are processed recursively as reading progresses. Unlike historians, chemists create knowledge through experimentation. The findings of experiments are somewhat dependent upon the quality of the instrumentation, the design, and the statistical analysis. However, these variables are all decided upon prior to the actual experiment. The findings are generalizable to other experiments under the same conditions. Although chemists are not uncritical readers, we found that the chemists we studied did have more confidence than historians in the utility of the knowledge that had been created; they believed they could use that knowledge to predict what would happen under similar conditions. What is important to them in reading, consequently, was a full understanding of the way in which an experiment took place and the processes the experiment uncovered. Gaining that full understanding required them to think about the phenomenon being presented in prose, to visualize it, and to manipulate it in formulas and equations.

College Intro to Science Text The Antarctic krill is (Euphausia superba) is a species of krill found in the Antarctic waters of the Southern Ocean. Antarctic krill are shrimp-like invertebrates that live in large schools, called swarms, sometimes reaching densities of 10,000-30,000 individual animals per cubic meter. They feed directly on minute phytoplankton, thereby using the primary production energy that the phytoplankton originally derived from the sun in order to sustain their pelagic (open ocean) life cycle. They grow to a length of 6 cm, weigh up to 2 grams, and can live for up to six years. They are a key species in the Antarctic ecosystem and are, in terms of biomass, likely the most successful animal species on the planet. 31

Chart Accompanying the Passage 32

History Reading History is interpretative Importance of authors and sourcing in interpretation Consideration of bias and perspective (including one’s own) are essential Helpful to recognize history as an argument based on partial evidence (narratives are more than facts) Historians emphasized paying attention to the author/source during reading. Before reading, they would consider who the authors were and what their biases might be. Their reading purpose seemed to be to figure out which story that particular author wanted to tell; they were keenly aware that they were reading an interpretation and not “Truth.” One historian said when reading a text about Lincoln: “I saw, oh . . . I don’t know him very well, but he [the author] is part of a right-wing group of southern conservatives who is a secessionist. I’m not sure that the best model for thinking about Lincoln as a president is one that comes from a racist. So I have my critical eyes up a little bit, so it’s a bit of a stretch to be friendly to, so I wanted to make sure to read it fairly.” In this nuanced example, the historian reveals that he does not read the text as truth, but rather as an interpretation that has to be judged based upon its credibility. He attempts to evaluate its credibility through an examination of the author’s biases. However, he also knows that he, as a reader, has his own biases, and that his disregard for right-wing secessionist groups might color his reading and he could miss important insights. He reads with a view that both author and reader are fallible and positioned. The varied emphases shown in these examples are related to the intellectual values of a discipline and the methods by which scholarship is created. History relies on document analysis (document being widely defined to include films, interview protocol, etc.). These are collected after an event occurs, and their selection/analysis take place somewhat simultaneously. Thus, it is possible for a historian to choose and analyze evidence, unwittingly perhaps, that corroborates a previously held perspective. The historians we studied read with that caution in mind. Unfortunately, the nature of historiography (how history is written/presented) is not often the subject of discussion in adolescent history classes. Students believe they are reading to learn “the facts,” and fail to consider potential bias (Shanahan & Shanahan) 33

Multiple Gist Text Set Chart of slaves owned by Jackson Text of Jackson’s inauguration Bank Veto Speech 34

Tools for Transforming Texts In the mind and on paper Language frames Visual displays Notetaking guides

Multiple Text Discussion Web in History YES NO Text 1 Evidence Text 1 Evidence Text 2 Evidence Should explorers risk lives to achieve goals? Text 2 Evidence Our View Text 3 Evidence Text 3 Evidence 36

Guided Notetaking in Science Elements: Arctic Krill Properties: invertebrate Lays eggs 4 Stages to development larvae, juveniles, gravid females, and other adults Eat phytoplankton Lay eggs Processes Eggs are laid at surface of water and drop Hatched eggs rise to surface Larvae are at surface Krill reach adulthood (2-3 years) Key Details 6,000-10,000 eggs laid Eggs hatch at about 2,000-3,000 meters Larvae develop, nourished by yolk Develop more legs, eyes, grow by molting, Eat algae under ice Juveniles move inland of adults Different stages kept separate! Analogies Like a snake sheds its skin as it grows, so does the krill. Krill eat algae the same way a lawnmower takes in grass Illustrations: (Chart of different seasons and changes in the krill as it goes through the life cycle.) 37

Disciplinary Literacy Requires Quality Instruction

Envelope fold Let’s Make a Foldable™ Focus Lesson Guided Instruction Collaborative Learning Independent Learning

A Model for Success for All Students TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY “I do it” Focus Lesson Guided Instruction “We do it” “You do it together” Collaborative “You do it alone” Independent STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY A Model for Success for All Students Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

The sudden release of responsibility TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY “I do it” Focus Lesson “You do it alone” Independent STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY DIY School TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY (none) “You do it alone” Independent STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

The “Good Enough” Classroom TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY “I do it” Focus Lesson Guided Instruction “We do it” “You do it alone” Independent STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Time for a Story January 2006

A Model for Success for All Students TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY “I do it” Focus Lesson Guided Instruction “We do it” “You do it together” Collaborative “You do it alone” Independent STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY A Model for Success for All Students Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

What are the qualities necessary for a good chocolate chip cookie?

Should it be … Chewy? Warm? Does it have nuts? Are the chips white, semi-sweet, or dark?

Feedback is not enough

Think about a time when you got feedback, but no direction…. Confused? Frustrated? Gave up altogether?

Teachers do the same thing with anchorless feedback

Unless there is an agreement on quality …

… we are immune to feedback.

Quality indicators anchor feedback

Establishing Purpose: Why are we doing this anyway?

Two Components: Language Purpose Content Purpose

The established purpose focuses on student learning, rather than an activity, task, or assignment.

Students can explain the established purpose in their own words.

Modeling Your Thinking

Thinking Aloud in Math Background knowledge (e.g., When I see a triangle, I remember that the angles have to add to 180°.) Relevant versus irrelevant information (e.g., I’ve read this problem twice and I know that there is information included that I don’t need.) Selecting a function (e.g., The problem says ‘increased by’ so I know that I’ll have to add.) Setting up the problem (e.g., The first thing that I will do is … because …) Estimating answers (e.g., I predict that the product will be about 150 because I see that there are 10 times the number.) Determining reasonableness of an answer (e.g., I’m not done yet as I have to check to see if my answer is makes sense.) Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Anderson, H. (2010). Thinking and comprehending in the mathematics classroom (pp. 146-159). In K. Ganske & D. Fisher (Eds.), Comprehension across the curriculum: Perspectives and practices, K-12. New York: Guilford.

Table Talk In what ways does Dina connect mathematical thinking to thinking aloud? How does she establish an environment where learners explain their thinking?

Virtual Frog Dissection Lab A biology teacher can model his or her thinking while performing a virtual frog dissection lab through specialized software. The teacher explains what he is looking for, how he makes decisions, and when he knows he has made an error.

Thinking Aloud with a Calculator A math teacher can think aloud while operating an online scientific calculator. She explains how she sets up the problem and checks her answer.

Livescribe Pulse Smartpen Teacher thinks aloud doing a math problem, then uploads notes to classroom wiki

Thinking aloud with text Let’s make a Foldable Thinking aloud with text fold Comprehension Comprehension Vocabulary Text Structure Text Features

What do expert teachers model during shared readings of informational texts? Available at www.fisherandfrey.com Click on “Journal Publications” Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2008). Shared readings, modeling comprehension, vocabulary, text structures, and text features for older readers. The Reading Teacher. 61(7), 548-556.

Modeling Comprehension Inference Summarize Predict Clarify Question Visualize Monitor Synthesize Evaluate Connect

Word Solving: Looking Inside and Outside of Words Inside: Word parts (prefix, suffix, root, base, cognates) Outside: Context clues Outside: Resources (others, Internet, dictionary)

Using Text Structure Informational Texts Narrative Texts Problem/Solution, Compare/Contrast, Sequence, Cause/Effect, Description Narrative Texts Story grammar (plot, setting, character) Dialogue Literary devices

Using Text Features Headings Table of contents Captions Glossary Illustrations Charts Graphs Bold words Table of contents Glossary Index Tables Margin notes Italicized words

What Happened to Phineas? Attend the tale of Phineas Gage. Honest, well liked by friends and fellow workers on the Rutland and Burlington Railroads, Gage was a young man of exemplary character and promise until one day in September 1848. While tamping down the blasting powder for a dynamite charge, Gage inadvertently sparked an explosion. The inch thick tamping rod rocketed through his cheek, obliterating his left eye, on its way through his brain and out the top of his skull. Discover Magazine

The rod landed several yards away, and Gage fell back in a convulsive heap. Yet a moment later he stood up and spoke. His fellow workers watched, aghast, then drove him by oxcart to a local hotel where a doctor, one John Harlow, dressed his wounds. As Harlow stuck his index fingers in the holes in Gage’s face and head until their tips met, the young man inquired when he would be able to return to work. Discover Magazine

“Here is business enough for you. ” --What Phineas said to Dr “Here is business enough for you.” --What Phineas said to Dr. Harlow upon arriving at the hotel.

Within two months the physical organism that was Phineas Gage had completely recovered - he could walk, speak, and demonstrate normal awareness of his surroundings. But the character of the man did not survive the tamping rod’s journey through his brain. In place of the diligent, dependable worker stood a foul-mouthed and ill-mannered liar given to extravagant schemes that were never followed through. “Gage,” said his friends, “was no longer Gage.” Discover Magazine

Questions How did Phineas survive this penetrating brain injury? For how much longer did he live?

Other Examples Annotating a piece of text in English Reading and interpreting an editorial cartoon in History Interpreting a piece of sheet music in Band class Think alouds can be used across disciplines to show students how information is understood and interpreted.