Frameworks for Understanding: Science, Systems, and Ethics

Outline What is Science? Cooperation and Consensus in Science Systems Environmental Ethics and World Views Religious and Cultural Perspectives Environmental Justice

WHAT IS SCIENCE? Science is: a methodical, logical process for producing knowledge about natural phenomena. a cumulative body of knowledge produced by scientists. based on careful observation and hypothesis testing

Science Depends on Skepticism and Accuracy Ideally scientists are skeptical and unbiased. Scientists strive for: accuracy - correctness of measurements precision - repeatability of results

Deductive & Inductive Reasoning deductive reasoning - logical reasoning from general to specific inductive reasoning - reasoning from many observations to produce a general rule It is also important to recognize the role of insight, creativity, aesthetics, and luck in research.

Hypotheses and Theories hypothesis - a testable explanation scientific theory - a description or explanation that has been supported by a large number of tests and is considered by experts to be reliable

Probability Probability is a measure of how likely something is to occur. Scientists often increase confidence in a study by comparing results to a random sample or a larger group.

Statistics Many statistical tests focus on calculating the probability that observed results could have occurred by chance. Usually ecological tests are considered significant if this probability is less than 5%.

Experimental Design natural experiment - involves observation of events that have already happened manipulative experiment - conditions are deliberately altered and all other variables are held constant controlled study - comparing a treatment group to a control group blind experiment - researcher doesn’t know which group is treated until after the data have been analyzed double-blind experiment - neither the subject nor the researcher knows who is in the treatment group

Variables Dependent variables (Y axis) are affected by independent variables (X axis).

Models Models are simple representations of phenomena. They allow scientists to study complex systems and predict the effect of conditions that are too difficult to create and control. When multiple models agree, scientists gain confidence.

COOPERATION AND CONCENSUS Scientific concensus (general agreement among informed scholars) stems from a community of scientists who collaborate in a cummulative, self-correcting process. Paradigm shifts (great changes in explanatory frameworks) occur when a majority of scientists agree that an old explanation no longer works very well.

Critical Thinking

Environmental Science vs. Environmentalism environmental science - use of scientific method to study processes and systems in the environment environmentalism - working to influence attitudes and policies that affect our environment

SYSTEMS systems - networks of interactions among many interdependent factors open - take inputs of energy or material from outside the system closed - no inputs from outside examples: ecosystems, climates systems, geologic systems, economic systems

System Characteristics positive feedback loop - when a flow leads to compartment changes that further enhance the flow negative feedback loop - dampens flow equilibrium - dynamic state in which system is changing little over time (homeostasis) disturbance - periodic destructive events resilience - ability of system to recover from disturbance emergent properties - characteristics of system that are more than the sum of the system’s parts (example: The human system exhibits emotion, creativity, humor, etc.)

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS & WORLD VIEWS Ethics is a branch of philosophy: morals - distinction between right and wrong values - ultimate worth of actions or things Environmental ethics deals with the moral relationships between humans and the surrounding world.

anthropocentric - human-centered utilitarian - believe an action is right that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people biocentricism - all living things have intrinsic value preservationist - nature should be protected for its own sake stewardship - custodian of resources

Moral Value moral extensionism - widening definition of who is considered ethically significant animal rights

Intrinsic or Instrumental Value intrinsic (inherent, innate) - worth or value simply because of existence humans instrumental (conferred) - worth or value only because they are valued by someone who matters tools

Ecofeminism Ecofeminists argue most philosophers came from a patriarchal system based on domination and duality. Contend domination, exploitation, and mistreatment of women, children, minorities, and nature are intimately connected and mutually reinforcing. Promotes justice and cooperation.

Religious and Cultural Perspectives

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE environmental racism - People of color around the world are subjected to a disproportionately high level of environmental health risks. environmental justice combines civil rights and environmental protection to demand a safe, healthy environment for all people.

Dumping Across Borders toxic colonialism - targeting poor communities of color for waste disposal and experimentation native American reservations third and fourth world countries moving operations to countries where environmental regulations are lax

Outline What is Science? Cooperation and Consensus in Science Systems Environmental Ethics and World Views Religious and Cultural Perspectives Environmental Justice