Myers’ Psychology for AP* David G. Myers PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, © 2010 *AP is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.

Unit 7B: Cognition: Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language

Unit Overview Thinking Language Thinking and Language Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

Introduction Cognition (thinking) Cognitive psychologists

Thinking

Concepts Concepts Category hierarchies prototype

Solving Problems Strategies Algorithms Step-by-step Heuristic Insight

Solving Problems Creativity Strernberg’s five components Expertise Imaginative thinking skills A venturesome personality Intrinsic motivation A creative environment

Solving Problems Obstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation bias Fixation Mental set Functional fixedness

Solving Problems Obstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation bias Fixation Mental set Functional fixedness

Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics The Representative Heuristic

Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Using and Misusing Heuristics The Availability Heuristic

Making Decisions and Forming Judgments Overconfidence

Making Decisions and Forming Judgments The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Consider the opposite

Making Decisions and Forming Judgments The Perils and Powers of Intuition Unconscious intuition

Making Decisions and Forming Judgments The Effects of Framing Framing experiments

Language

Language Introduction

Language Structure Phonemes English about 40 phonemes Learning another language’s phonemes

Language Structure Morphemes Includes prefixes and suffixes

Language Structure Grammar Semantics Syntax

Language Development When Do We Learn Language? Receptive language Productive language Babbling stage One-word stage Two-word stage Telegraphic speech

Language Development When Do We Learn Language?

Language Development When Do We Learn Language?

Language Development When Do We Learn Language?

Language Development When Do We Learn Language?

Language Development When Do We Learn Language?

Language Development When Do We Learn Language?

Language Development Explaining Language Development Skinner: Operant Learning Learning principles Association Imitation Reinforcement

Language Development Explaining Language Development Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar Language acquisition device Universal grammar

Language Development Explaining Language Development Statistical Learning and Critical Periods Statistical learning Critical (sensitive) period

Thinking and Language

Language Influences Thinking Whorf’s linguistic determinism Bilingual advantage

Thinking in Images Implicit memory

The End

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Definition Slides

Cognition = the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concept = a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype = a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

Algorithm = a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone – use of heuristics.

Heuristic = a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

Insight = a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

Creativity = the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Confirmation Bias = a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Fixation = the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set.

Mental Set = a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Functional Fixedness = the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

Representativeness Heuristic = judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

Availability Heuristic = estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence = the tendency to be more confident that correct – to over-estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Belief Perseverance = clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they are formed has been discredited.

Intuition = an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Framing = the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Language = our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Phoneme = in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Morpheme = in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

Grammar = in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

Semantics = the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.

Syntax = the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

Babbling Stage = beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

One-word Stage = the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Two-word Stage = beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

Telegraphic Speech = early speech state in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs.

Linguistic Determinism = Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.