African American and Ethnic Literary Criticism

Important Points: Critics sought to define African American Literary tradition. Devoted to tracing the historical construction of racial “Other” and subordinated literature and recovering genres such as slave narratives. Criticism and histories of African American Literature ignored and dismissed women writers (masculinity of African American studies) and Feminism ignored women writers of color (whiteness of feminist studies). Recent years have seen a rise of recognition of literature of other ethnic groups such as Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Chicanos. Critics emphasize hybridity of all cultures in a global economy and its effect of literature.

How to do: Understand that black writing comes out of sociological, political, ideological, and cultural situation marked by oppression and marginalization. Black experience and the expression of that experience is a historical, cultural formation of oppression. 3 different focuses: African Heritage, Evolved American Black Culture, and the possibility of adaption to a new non- racial cultural formation. Attempt to recognize and celebrate that which is distinctively and positively black in black culture (owes meaning and expression to the expressions and traditions of black culture and experience).

How to do Continued: Explore struggle over relation of race. Ask who “speaks for” blacks? Can only blacks “read” black literature? Can black literature be read with the tools of contemporary criticism or does it demand a more basic, moral, and ideological commitment? Read white writing in a racist country. This illuminates the nature of oppression of blacks. Toni Morrison argues that American Culture is built on the presence of blacks, as slaves, as outsiders. She suggests that whiteness is the “Other” of blackness (each term both creates and excludes the other). There is no freedom without slavery, no white without black.

How to do Continued: Morrison believes that one can read blackness into white America. According to Morrison, if one is African one then says they are either white or black African. If one says they are American it automatically means they are white (unless otherwise noted white is automatic). Violence against blacks is embedded in the uses of language and cultural practices of the nation. Attempt to come to terms with the entire issue of what “race” is. Historically race is seen as essential (inherent, matter of ‘blood’) When is white black? Generally it is when a person has “black blood,” or rather when people know or think that a person has some “black blood.”

How to do Continued: Look for Colorism: Discrimination based on skin color. People are treated differently based on social meanings attached to skin color. BROWN PAPER BAG TEST: many churches, fraternities, and nightclubs used a brown paper bag as the principle for entrance. The premise was to hold a brown paper bag against a person’s skin. If person was lighter or same color as the bag, he or she was admitted. Commonly used in upper middle class Black American Families in early 1900s, but this test is still used today.

Examples of modern day Brown Paper Bag Test: Mimi Mbah, 19 year old model: https://mic.com/articles/173263/told-she-d-be-more- attractive-if-her-skin-was-lighter-this-model-issued-a-fire- clapback#.jVHlDxIOZ Dove advertisement: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/08/business/dove- ad-racist.html

Relationship between Marxism and Black literary Criticism: In Capital Karl Marx wrote “Labor cannot emancipate itself in the white skin where in the black it is branded” (140) Racial oppression is tied to Capitalism because capitalism is grounded in a series of systematic exploitations. Racial oppression exists because of economic forces.

Relationship between Marxism and Black literary Criticism: The Racial Contract by Charles Mills: unspoken agreement reached by members of a given society in which said members assign privilege to a set of individuals based on skin color. Any person who is not a member of the privileged set is forced into a subset or an unprivileged subordinate group. Subordinate group is forced to endure exploitation at hands of privileged group (11). “It is a contract between those characterized as white over nonwhites, who are thus the objects rather than the subjects of the agreement” (12). White group forces this agreement.

Relationship between Marxism and Black literary Criticism: Technology strengthens inequalities. More advanced civilizations have long believed that if the less advanced civilization is unable to care for themselves and their property to the standards of the more advanced civilization then they are not entitled to the property or even themselves. National Geographic Lifetime of Inequality link: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/ 04/race-ethnicity-inequality-life-health-wealth-education- infographic/

Rastus: This name has been used as a generic derogatory name for black men since 1880. It is a stereotypically happy black man, not a particular person. It is also the name of African American character that first appeared on Cream of Wheat in 1893. Image remained until 1920’s when it was replaced with a photograph of Frank L. White who was paid $5 to pose in chef’s hat and jacket.

1893 Cream of wheat

1904 cream of wheat

1909 cream of wheat

1927 Aunt Jemima

1949 Aunt Jemima

1940s Uncle Ben

2007 Uncle Ben