Chapter 1 Q: Explain SLA

Q: What are the goals of SLA?

Q: External factors of SLA

Q: Internal factors of SLA

Q: Discuss the two case studies

Q: Why do we have similar studies with different findings Q: Why do we have similar studies with different findings? (Methodological issues)

Issues in SLA The Natural Order hypothesis (Krashen, 1987) The acquisition of grammatical structures occurs in a predictable sequence. Although similar, the order of acquisition often differs between first and second languages. Regardless of L1, all L2 learners appear to follow the same predictable order( e.g., yes-no Qs before wh-Qs).

The role of age in L2 acquisition (Krashen, Long, & Scarcells, 1979) Issues in SLA The role of age in L2 acquisition (Krashen, Long, & Scarcells, 1979)

Critical Period Hypothesis There is a fixed span of years during which language learning can take place naturally and effortlessly, and after which it is not possible to be completely successful.

The optimum period for language acquisition falls within the firs ten years of life, when the brain retains its plasticity (Penfield & Roberts, 1959) Some learners who start learning an L2 after puberty achieve a level of competence indistinguishable from that of native speakers (Birdsong 1992; Bongaerts 1999; Moselle 1994)

Rate of acquisition in the early stages of syntactic and morphological development ---adults > older children > younger children 2. Acquirers who begin natural exposure to a second language during childhood achieve higher L2 proficiency than those beginning as adults

The effects of age on the rate of L2 learning Snow&Hoefnagel-Höhle (1978) Natural acquisition of Dutch (English speakers) 8-10 children/ 12-15 adolescents/ adults morphology&syntax: adolescents>adults>children grammar differences diminished over time as the children began to catch up

Older learners progressed faster 2. Munoz (2006) Instructed setting Learners of English (Spanish speakers) who began their study at the age of 8, 11, 14 Data collected after 200hrs of instruction/416/ 726hr Older learners progressed faster Younger learners did not catch up over time

3. Olsen & Samuels (1973) Adults outperform children in the short time American English-speaking adolescents and adults performed better than children after 10 German pronunciation sessions(15-25 min each)

3. Cochrane (1980) Adults outperform children in formal learning Japanese children and adults to discriminate /r/ &/l/ Naturalistic exposure: adults (245hrs) children (193hrs) Children outperformed the adults However, When they were taught the phonemic distinction, the adults were better

The greater cognitive development of older learners is advantageous where explicit learning is concerned (e.g., traditional grammar tests). However, implicit learning is a slow and gradual process. The advantage may not show up until after sufficient exposure to the L2 in naturalistic setting. School-based studies cannot address this ‘age’ issue as formal learning does not provide sufficient exposure (Singleton, 1989)

The effects of age on ultimate achievement Oyama (1976) Test: nativeness of the learners’ accents (immigrated at ages ranging from 6-20 and lived in USA for 5-18 years) A strong effect for ‘age of arrival’ No effect for ‘number of years’ in USA

Johnson & Newport (1989) Koreans and Chinese immigrants Age of arrival: 3-39 Grammatical judgement test The older the learners were on arrival, the lower their scores

Cummins & Nakajima (1987) Acquisition of L2 literacy skills Japanese children (in Grades 2-8 in Toronto) The older the students were on arrival in Canada, the more likely they were to have better L2 reading & writing skills

General conclusions 1. Adult learners have an initial advantage where rate of learning is concerned, particularly in grammar. They will eventually be overtaken by child learners who receive enough exposure to the L2. This is less likely to happen in instructional than in naturalistic settings.

General conclusions 2. Child learners are more likely to acquire a native accent and grammar than adult learners but a native accent and grammar is possible for at least some adult learners.

General conclusions 3.There is no agreement as to whether there is a critical period for learning an L2. It may differ for pronunciation and for grammar. There are also disagreements even among supporters of CP. It is safe to say that the ability to learn an L2 declines with increasing age.

Issues in SLA Fossilization (Selinker 1972) A permanent cessation in learning before the learner has attained target language norms. It is possible for a learner to be fossilized in some aspects of the L2 but to continue to develop in others.

Issues in SLA Fossilization (Selinker 1972) Cognitive level: It involves underlying mechanisms that produce permanently stabilized IL forms Empirical level: It involves those stabilized IL forms that remain in learner speech or writing over time, no matter what the input or what the learner does.

What may cause fossilization? lack of attention inappropriate learning strategy inability to notice input-output discrepancies false automatization reluctance to restructure processing constraints a tendency to focus on content rather than form neural entrenchment