1. Theories of Language Acquisition
Lecture IX

2. Second Language learning in the classroom Six proposals for teaching
Get it right from the beginning
Just listen….and read
Let’s talk
Get two for one
Teach what is teachable
Get it right in the end

3. Proposals for teaching
Theories proposed for the best ways to learn a L2
Various teaching methods and materials to implement the theories
Research on learning and teaching is the best way to promote language learning
Quantitative research - descriptive & experimental
Qualitative research – ethnographies and case studies involving small numbers (one or two classes, or one or two learners)

4. 1. Get it right from the beginning
This proposal emphasizes the importance of accuracy in L2 teaching
Grammar translation and audio-lingual approaches used
The GT approach used in teaching classical languages – vocabulary lists with translation, text translating and practising grammar rules

5. 1. Get it right from the beginning
Audio-lingual approach as a reaction to the grammar translation approach
It led students to practise speaking the language
Students rarely used the language spontaneously
Teachers avoid letting students speak freely as they would make errors which could become habits
Better prevent bad habits before they happen

6. Research findings on this proposal
Language is not learned by the gradual accumulation of one item after the other
Errors are a natural and valuable part of language learning process
The motivation of learners is often prevented by an insistence on correctness and by rote learning
It is better to encourage learners to develop fluency before accuracy

7. Interpreting the research
The proposal has important limitations
L2 learners receiving audio-lingual or grammar-based instruction are often unable to communicate their messages
Introverted learners will not take chances to participate actively as the emphasis is on accuracy
Learners benefit more from opportunities for communicative practice where the emphasis is on understanding and expressing meaning
Meaning-based instruction is advantageous
L2 learners need to develop both accuracy and fluency in order to use the language effectively

8. 2. Just listen…and read
Stephen Krashen closely associated with this proposal
It is based on the hypothesis that language acquisition takes place when learners are exposed to comprehensible input through listening and reading
Not necessary to drill and memorize language forms in order to learn them
Not necessary to produce language (speaking or writing)
It is a controversial proposal as it suggests that it is enough to hear and understand the language

9. Interpreting the research
Learners make considerable progress if they are exposed to the language they understand
Comprehension-based learning is an excellent way to begin learning and also a valuable supplement to other kinds of learning for more advanced learners
Comprehensible input alone is not sufficient for L2 learning
Swain proposed the comprehensible output hypothesis
Learners discover their limitations when they have to produce language
Learners develop when they have to produce language – comprehensible output hypothesis, Swain 1985

10. Let’s talk
Importance given to comprehensible input and conversational interactions with teachers and students
When learners are given opportunity to engage in interactions, they are compelled to negotiate for meaning, to express and clarify their intentions, thoughts, opinions, in order to understand one another
Negotiation for meaning is accomplished through modifications during interactions
According to the interaction hypothesis, negotiation leads learners to acquire words and grammatical structures to express their intended meaning

11. Interpreting the research
Learners can develop fluency and communication abilities in conversational interaction
It is difficult for learners to provide each other with accurate corrective feedback in conversational interaction
Studies suggest that implicit corrective feedback is beneficial in pair-work situations

12. 4. Get two for one Content-based language teaching
Learning a L2 by studying subject matter taught in that language
Implemented in various instructional settings
Some educational programmes offer instruction in two languages – learners choose the language
Some offer only one instruction language

13. Interpreting the research
Advantages of Content-based language teaching:
Learners exposed to the language for many hours
A genuine need to communicate
Motivates students to acquire the language in order to understand the content
Cognitively challenging esp. for adult learners
Challenges of CBLT
Children need many years to acquire the language for cognitively challenging academic material
In CBLT both language and the content must be aimed

14. 5. Teach what is teachable
Some linguistic structures such as word order, develop along a predictable developmental path, which are called developmental features (Manfred Pienemann, 1988)
No success to teach stage 4 word-order before learners have acquired stage 2 word-order
Instruction cannot change the ‘natural’ developmental path – teachers to teach what naturally comes next
Language aspects are best taught according to learners’ internal schedule

15. Interpreting the research
Targeting instruction to developmental stages can be beneficial
Type of input and L1 influence can be crucial factors
Focused instruction results in progress which makes learners ‘ready’ for the next stage
Exposure, instruction and feedback make learners ready
This proposals is instrumental for teachers planning their syllabus
Students do not always learn what they are taught (Patsy Lightbown, 1998)

16. 6. Get it right in the end
Proponents of this proposal recognize the important role of form-focused instruction and claim that:
Not everything has to be taught as lots of vocabulary is acquired naturally if learners have enough exposure to the language and a motivation to learn
Some language aspects must be taught explicitly if learners share the same L1
Some language aspects can be taught by helping learners notice certain features in the input and increase their awareness of the form
Students’ readiness to be taken into account for successful teaching

17. Interpreting research
Form-focus instruction and corrective feedback help learners improve their knowledge and use of particular grammatical forms
Long-term effects of the instruction may be related to whether there is continued exposure to the language form after the instruction ends
Teachers are not the only source of information about the language forms – students can help each other by reflecting on language forms
Form-focused instruction may be more effective for some features than others
Isolated and integrated form-focused instruction may lead to different kinds of knowledge

18. Interpreting research
There is a need for more research that ‘measures ‘implicit’ and ‘explicit’ knowledge
Implicit knowledge is considered to be intuitive and unanalysed, whereas explicit knowledge is described as conscious and analysed

19. Assessing the proposals
‘Get it right from the beginning’
Evidence suggests that this approach does not correspond to the way the majority of successful L2 learners have acquired their proficiency
‘Just listen and read’ and ‘Get two for one’
There is no support for the hypothesis that language acquisition will take care of itself if L2 learners focus exclusively on meaning/content.

20. Assessing the proposals
‘Let’s talk”
Conversational interactions in group and paired activities can lead to increased fluency and the ability to manage conversations in the L2.
However, learners may make slow progress on acquiring more accurate and sophisticated language if there is no focus on form as learners focus on what they say, not on how they say it.

21. Assessing the proposals
‘Teach what is teachable”
No strong evidence that teaching according to learners’ development level is necessary or desirable, or that it will lead to long-term benefits
It helps teachers set realistic expectations about the learners’ progress

22. Assessing the proposals
‘Get it right in the end”
Strong evidence that form-focused instruction is more effective in promoting L2 learning than instructional approaches that are limited to an exclusive emphasis on accuracy, comprehension or interaction.
Classroom activities should be built on creating opportunities for students to express and understand meaningful language
Form-focused instruction and corrective feedback are essential for learners’ growth and development
Finding the balance between meaning-based and form-focused activities based on learners’ age and learning goals

23. Questions ?