1. Cognitive Processes in SLL and Bilinguals:
Marisol Espinoza
Stephanie Castillo ~
The Development of Lexical and Conceptual Representations

2. Introduction
Cognitive processes that support second language acquisition:
To understand how cognitive systems are constrained by the context and timing of acquisition and to identify the source of these constraints.
The cognitive consequences of having two languages active in early childhood.
Representations, processes, and strategies that are used when skilled adult bilinguals read and speak words and process sentences in each of their two languages.

3. Do Bilingual and SLL possess one or two lexicons for words in each Language?
Too unconstrained to provide an adequate model.
Two main disagreements and source of confusion.
1. What does the lexicon include? Is it integrated or separated for words in two languages applied to all aspects or only to some?
2. How does a person access to lexicons?
Five questions to narrow it down.

4. 1. How are lexical forms in each language represented and activated during Reading?
Psycholinguists use a variety of tasks to investigate word recognition during reading.
Goal: to identify those aspects of lexical representation that are involved when words are identified and to examine the extend to which information in the two languages interact during this process.
- most common: lexical decision.
BIA model: Bilingual’s lexicon is integrated and that lexical access is non-selective, with candidates in both languages activated whenever the input shares features with alternative in either language.

5. 2. Are semantic representations shared across the bilingual’s two languages?
Evidence: lexical forms both active during word recognition. What about meaning?
Most models assumed that both languages access to a common semantic code.
1. Bilinguals are able to translate at least functionally.
2. It is possible to observe priming across languages.
3. Semantically related words interfere with picture naming in either language.
4. MLD suggests that during initial L2, 1L semantics is transferred to the new L2 word.

6. Time to translate words is faster with cognates and concrete words that abstract words.
Access to semantics for learners is a matter of degree.

7. 3. On what basis are lexical and semantic representations connected for words and concepts in each language?
Different approaches:
WAM: L2 is always mediated through L1
CMM: concepts can be accessed directly by and for L2 words without L1 activation.
Results: At early stages there is a reliance on word-to-Word mapping, but with increasing proficiency there is an increasing ability to conceptually mediate L2.

8. How does the shift occur? RHM: different weighting.
1. translation from L2 to L1 faster that from L1 to L2.
2. L1 more likely to activate semantics, then translation from L1 to L2 is influenced by semantic variables than L2 to L Translation Asymmetry.
The difficulty in performing L1 to L2 translation suggests that it is not access to concepts that is the central problems, but rather difficulty in lexicalizing concepts into L2 words.

9. Abstract lexical representations
4. How are words spoken in the second language when a more dominant alternative almost always exists in the first language?
Lexical alternatives in both of the bilingual’s languages may be active for some period of time prior to the selection of the word to be produced.
1°: Semantic features are activated corresponding to the meaning of the pictured object. Also, information about the intended language.
2: Lemmas are specified for each of the lexical alternatives in the two languages.
3°: The form of the spoken utterance is specified.
Abstract lexical representations

10. How are words spoken in the second language when a more dominant alternative almost always exists in the first language?
What is the evidence for cross-language competition?
The words that are semantically related to the picture’s name generally produce interference and words that are related to the phonological form of the picture’s name produce facilitation.
Semantically related distractor words produce interference in naming a picture even when the picture is named in one language and the distractor word appears in the other language.
The few studies of production in L2 learners also suggest that much of the difficulty that learners have in producing words in L2 is due to competition from more active L1 alternatives.

11. 5. How is the activation of lexical form and meaning controlled so that bilinguals recognize and speak words in the intended language?
The factors that modulate the relative activation of word in each language determine the word that is selected. So, mechanisms external to the lexicon CONSTRAIN the manner in which the output of lexical activity is used.
The Inhibitory Control Model: Set of mechanisms outside the lexical system itself that are hypothesized to work together with the output from the system to accomplish proficient performance.
To translate from L1 to L2 it will be necessary to inhibit L1 lemmas in order to produce words in L2.
L2 learners may need to acquire a new set of processing skills that fall outside the language itself to be able to effectively use both languages. This is why may be a particularly difficult task for L2 learners who are restricted to classroom exposure because it will be difficult to acquire cues that are unique to the new L2.
The results of other studies mentioned in the text, suggest that identifying factors that reduce the activity of L1 or uniquely cue L2 may facilitate learning.

12. Implications of Psycholinguistic Research for Second Language Pedagogy
Lexical and semantic information in L1 is activated during both comprehension and production in L2.
Methods in second language pedagogy that try to inhibit L1 activation.
“the cognitive and affective mental process that occurs when an instructor insists that a new word ultimately be associated directly with its meaning and not with a translation”.

13. Historically
The Direct method: direct association of words and phrases with objects and actions and an enormous amount of input.
The Audio-lingual (1950) method was to develop in learners the same abilities that native speakers have, handling the language at an unconscious level.
Total Physical Response (1960): Language comprehension should develop before any oral participation, as it does with children. It says that skills can be acquired more rapidly if you involve the kinaesthetic-sensory system.
The Natural Approach (1970) is based on Krashen’s theory, making a strong claim that comprehensible input causes acquisition. The use of the L2 was then seen as the only tool for providing comprehensible input to the learners, and L1 had no place in the Natural approach.

14. “Link the content of the foreign phrase to its mental concept rather than to its English translation. If possible, link it to a pictorial object or action. The trick is to link the thought concept not with your own language, but with the language you are learning” (1966).