Write down on the post it note any key terms associated with observations

Component 01 Research Methods C/W 23 February 2019 1.1 Observations L.O: To be able to explain the different research methods and their associated strengths and weaknesses.

Progress Criteria How will you know that you have made progress this lesson? GOING STRONG I can evaluate the strengths/weaknesses of Event and Time Sampling. ACCELERATING I can apply event and time Sampling and Behavioural Categories and Coding Frames to an observation. REVVING UP I can identify the features of Observational research.

Key terms – Which are you unsure about? Observation Event sampling Structured observation Time sampling Unstructured observation Inter rater reliability Naturalistic observation Coding frames Controlled observation Behavioural categories Covert observation Overt observation Participant observation Non participant observation REVVING UP

Observation Observation: where a researcher observes and records participants’ behaviour, but does not manipulate any variables. Stretch and Challenge: Psychology is the scientific study of what? What can’t we observe? Start with a general introduction about people watching, characteristics of it and why do we do it? Elicit from students what the strengths and weaknesses of watching people are. Elicit from students which core studies they’ve come across which use observations either as a method or a technique. REVVING UP

Primary method: experiment Observation REVVING UP Observations can be used as part of an experiment. I get participants to solve a puzzle in a hot or cold room, then I observe them to see how stressed they look. I'm using an observation as part of my experiment (manipulating an IV to measure the effects on a DV). IV: Cold Primary method: experiment Secondary technique: observation Elicit from students a study whereby observation was used as a secondary technique. IV: Hot

Primary method: Observation If I just use an observation to gather data on how stressed people are, with no manipulation or conditions, then I am carrying out observation research, not an experiment. Primary method: Observation No IV Ensure students understand that there will be no hypothesis and no different groups of participants. Stretch and Challenge: if there is no IV or manipulation, what can’t be established? REVVING UP

Observational Studies Still use the same sampling methods Volunteer, self selected, random, snowball Still have the same ethical issues CDCDWP Respect, competence, integrity Refresh on different types and strengths/weaknesses of sampling methods. Elicit from students which ethical issues they think may apply to observations and why. Confidentiality, Deception, Consent, Debrief, Withdrawal, Protection REVVING UP

! ! Ethical Issues Invasion of privacy Confidentiality should be respected. Public places: people expect to be seen by others. C D C D W P (respect, integrity, confidentiality). Need to know how you can address ethical issues. ! COVERT OBSERVATIONS DO NOT NECESSARILY BREACH INFORMED CONSENT ETHICS BECAUSE YOU CAN OBSERVE PEOPLE WITHOUT CONSENT IN AREAS WHERE THEY EXPECT TO BE OBSERVED !

Features of an observation There are things we need to know about observations: Structured/unstructured Naturalistic/controlled Covert/overt Participant/non-participant Event sampling/time sampling Use your textbooks to identify the definitions, features and strengths and weaknesses of the different types of observation.

Structured/unstructured Using predefined coding categories for behaviour : Easier to record Easier to establish inter-rater reliability Reductionist Can reduce validity Open to observer bias Recording everything observed during the observation: Increases validity Applicable to a wide range of contexts Harder to record Harder to establish reliability Open to observer bias http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2LxWdGF0yuo – Unstructured Observation http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgTpAoJEXaE – Structured Observation Useful clips for students to see the difference between the different types of observations.

Naturalistic/controlled This technique involves a situation being contrived by the researcher. Usually conducted in a laboratory type setting. Think of examples where you have seen the use of controlled observation. Identify possible strengths and weaknesses of using controlled observation. Controlled This technique involves observing participants in their natural environment. It’s often used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables. Think of examples where a naturalistic observation may be useful… Identify possible strengths and weaknesses of using naturalistic observation. Be ready to give real life examples of naturalistic / controlled observations Strengths of naturalistic observations = high ecological validity, low demand characteristics Weaknesses of naturalistic observations = low control, ethical issues of privacy Reverse for controlled observations http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU – Controlled Observation

Covert/overt Covert Overt Participants do not know they are being observed: Increases validity Less social desirability/demand characteristics Ethical issues Participants do know they are being observed: Reduces ethical issues Social desirability/demand characteristics Decreases validity Stretch and Challenge: What ethical issues are associated with covert observation? Why would an overt observation decrease validity?

Participant/non-participant The researcher is involved with the people they are observing: Only way to observe behaviour (cults/gangs) Greater accuracy and detail Harder to remain objective Can influence behaviour, reducing validity Ethical issues The researcher remains separate from the person they are observing: Easier to remain objective No influence on behaviour Less ethical issues Can’t observe certain behaviour Less detail and accuracy Encourage students to consider why they may choose to conduct a participant observation rather than non participant (try to link to their practical activity as part of the component)

Task Complete Activity 1: Observation Types question http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRq1AhFAN-4 Identify the types of observations used in this clip. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRq1AhFAN-4 – Additionally students could identify the types of observations used in this clip.

Event and time sampling Sometimes an environment can be too busy to try and record everything that is happening. So we decide how we are going to ‘sample’ the behaviour: Event Sampling: every occurrence of behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded within a specified period of time Time Sampling: behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds) It is very important to emphasise that this has nothing to do with sampling of participants! Use table / tally charts on whiteboard / Smartboard to emphasise the difference between time and event sampling. ACCELERATING Note: this kind of ‘sample’ has nothing to do with participants!

Observation Task We shall now practise observations. Structured observation with time sampling Structured observation with event sampling Time sampling group: you also need to come up with behavioural categories or coding frames of anticipated behaviours (max. six), but you must also agree on a pre-agreed schedule of when you will observe and how for how long each time (e.g. every two minutes for ten seconds). Event sampling group: you need to come up with behaviour categories or coding frames of anticipated behaviours (max. six) and you will be tallying every time you see an instance of the behaviours on the coding scheme. Hand out cards: students are going to watch a clip of bad x factor auditions Students to work in small groups to prepare a coding system Can link back in to previous, e.g. is it covert / overt, naturalistic / controlled, etc to check for understanding of the key terms Activity 2 – Conducting an observation Activity 3 – Evaluating the observation Stretch and Challenge: is this a participation or non-participant observation?

Compare your findings Think about how you could present them graphically. Are there any major differences between your results? If so, why do you think that is? Is there anything you would change? Why / why not? What are the difficulties of event sampling and of time sampling? Do you think it would be easier to conduct an unstructured observation? Why / why not?

Event and Time Sampling Evaluation Event Sampling More representative over time Easier, more reliable observations Can miss important events Less likely to miss predefined events Increases validity and reliability Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once Can miss events not coded for Can link in to their mini activity: what problems did they find with their sampling of the behaviour on the clip? GOING STRONG

Complete the checklist to identify your confidence rating on experiments.

Coding Frames and behavioural categories in observations Component 01 Research Methods C/W 23 February 2019 Coding Frames and behavioural categories in observations L.O: To be able to explain how data is recorded during observational research and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses.

Progress Criteria How will you know that you have made progress this lesson? GOING STRONG I can evaluate the strengths/weaknesses of inter-rater reliability. ACCELERATING I can explain the difference between a coding frame and a behavioural category and suggest examples of coding frames. REVVING UP I can describe what behavioural categories are and suggest 3 examples.

Designing Observations – Behavioural Categories Behavioural categories – clearly defined behaviours are identified, which can be observed and recorded. These may be placed on a checklist and tallied every time that behaviour occurs. Task – what behavioural categories could be included in an observation of: a) A student doing their homework? b) A child in a room with toys? c) A teacher in a classroom? Pair work – What advantages and disadvantages are there with behavioural categories? REVVING UP These are used when designing a structured observation to record operationalised behaviours. What advantages and disadvantages are there with behavioural categories? +They are clearly operationalised and observable e.g. punching and kicking rather than aggression. +Creates qualitative data which is easier to analyse than qualitative data. - Details are limited e.g. a tally chart only tells you how often something has occurred. - Behaviours may be missed that are not on the pre-determined checklist

Designing Observations – Coding Frames Coding Frames – Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed with in a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different sub-type within a category. Example of Behavioural Category – Kicking, Punching Example Codes – Kung Fu Kick – KFK, Severity of strength of the Kicks–K1,K2,K3,K4,K5 Task – for the previous behavioural categories, list some coding frames. ACCELERATING

Inter-rater Reliability Inter-rater reliability: researchers observing the same behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way. If there is low inter-rater reliability it suggests: the coding of behaviour is either vague or lacks validity they’re not observing the same event. Just having multiple observers DOES NOT provide inter-rater reliability; they have to agree first. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inter-rater reliability? Again, could be linked to their own x factor observation: multiple students will have been looking at the same behaviour, does that mean they automatically get the same results? Why / why not? How could it be improved? GOING STRONG

Advantages See how people behave rather than how they say they behave. Allows us to study variables it would be unethical to manipulate e.g. behaviour in prisons. Useful as pilot to generate hypothesis for future research. GOING STRONG Remind students they need to bear this in mind when conducting their own observation. Stretch and Challenge: If you’ve already done an observation and can predict the results will be what kind of hypothesis would you have?

Disadvantages Difficult to replicate Does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour No manipulating variables, so can’t establish cause and effect Observer bias Observer effect Time consuming and requires careful preparation GOING STRONG

How can we increase validity and reliability in observations? To increase validity: Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (observer effect) Double blind observations to reduce observer bias Clearly operationalised coding system. To increase reliability: Clearly operationalised coding system Check inter-rater reliability Train researchers to use coding system Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories. Clearly identify that reliability = consistency and validity = measuring what we intend to measure Remind students that they can use the same issue for reliability and validity but must clearly contextualise and distinguish between the two, e.g. covert observations allow us to see natural behaviour (reduced demand characteristics) which will increase the validity as we will see how people would actually behave, however covert observations could raise ethical issues, which could impact on the ability to accurately replicate the research, which could lower the reliability GOING STRONG

Conducting an observation In groups you are going to carry out an observation. You may decide which type of observation you will conduct and for which type of behaviour. Conduct your observation and collate your findings. You will need to produce a report for peer review. Students must produce a brief of what they intend to research to be submitted to teacher (ethics board) for approval before commencing. Refer to Activity 4 instructions GOING STRONG