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BIOCHEMISTRY Introduction to carbohydrate Structure & Properties of Fat & Lipid Structure of Protein Denaturation & Renaturation of Protein Enzymes

Introduction to Carbohydrate The major organic constituents of the cell are carbohydrate, lipids and protein. These are macroelement or polymer made up by individual unit or molecule called Monomers The monomers are joined by a chemical process known as condensation which means the removal of water. Monomers can be obtained from polymers by breakdown a process known as hydrolysis which means the breaking process by addition of water.

CARBOHYDRATE Are the organic compound which contains the element such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The general formula of carbohydrate is Cx(H2O)y where by x and y are variable number Carbohydrate means hydrate of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen that are present in equal proportion in water.

Classification of carbohydrate Classes of Carbohydrate Carbohydrate are divided into three classes, theses are; Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharides

MONOSACCHARIDES These are the simple, sweat and unit monomers carbohydrate. The general formula of monosaccharide is (CH2O)y where y = 6. Monosaccharides are classified according to their number of carbon in which we classify into six (6) classes; TRIOSE: This is the simple monosaccharide which contains carbon three. For example glyceraldehydes (C3H6O3). TETROSE: This is the type of monosaccharide which contains four (4) number of carbon. For example C4H8O4 PENTOSE: This is the simple type of monosaccharide which contains 5 number of carbon. For example Ribose and deoxyribose (C5H10O5) HEXOSE: This is the compound which contains 6 number of carbon. For example glucose, fructose and galactose (C4H12O6)

Functions of Monosaccharide Pentose It used in the synthesis of nucleic acid e.g. RNA and DNA It used in the synthesis of some enzyme e.g. NAD and NADP It used in the synthesis of carbon dioxide receptor in photosynthesis It used in the synthesis of ATP Hexose Source of energy in body by cell respiration Synthesis of disaccharide e.g. glucose + glucose → Maltose Glucose + fructose → Sucrose Synthesis of polysaccharide

DISACCHARIDE A disaccharide or biose is the carbohydrate formed when two monosaccharides undergo a condensation reaction which involves the elimination of a small molecule, such as water, from the functional groups only. Also disaccharides are sweat,small molecules and very soluble in water, disaccharides can be crystalline and their names always end with “ose”. Usually the formula of disaccharides is C12H22O11. Some disaccharide are reducing sugar and some are non reducing sugar. The most dissacchhardes are maltose, lactose (reducing sugar) and Sucrose (non reducing sugar).

Structure of disaccharides The bond formed between two monomers as a result of condensation is called Glycocidic bond and is normal formed between carbon atom in 1 and 4 of neighboring unit.

Examples of Disaccharides Maltose It occur during the digestion of starch by amylase enzymes and maltose it used in industrial for making a bear by barley grain. Starch Maltose Lactose This is the milk sugar and exclusively found in milk. It is source of energy in young mammals. Lactose slowly digested and hence gives a slow steady release of energy Sucrose It is a cane sugar and it the most abundant in nature. Most commonly found in plant where it is transported in large quantities through phloem tissue. Phloem transport sucrose than starch because it is very soluble and therefore can be moved efficiently in high concentration also it is a chemical uncreative and does not disturb the metabolism

Function of Sucrose It is used to manufacture of wine It used to manufacture of perfume It used to manufacture of sprit

POLYSACCHARIDE Polysaccharides are macromolecules or polymers. They are not sweat and also insoluble in water or slightly soluble in water also they are not crystalline and can be liquid or powder. Polysaccharide are made by joining many monomer and the general formula of polysaccharides is( Cx(H2O))y. Examples of polysaccharide are cellulose, glycogen, starch, chitin, Murein etc.

Starch has two components Components of Starch Starch Is the polymer of glucose, it is major food storage in plants but absence in animals. It is very easily to convert to glucose. In germinating seeds this glucose may be used to make other materials needed for growth. Starch has two components Amylose Amylopectin Amylose It has a straight chain in structure consisting of several thousand glucose residue joined by 1,4 glycocidic bond, this bond cause the chain to coil helically into a compound shape. A suspension in water gives a blue black colour with iodine solution

cont…. Amylopectin It is compacted branched compound of starch formed by 1,6 glycocidic bond, the number of glucose is twice than that amylase. A test of starch gives a red – vioet or purple Starch molecules accumulate to form starch grains these are found in many plants cell in the chloroplast of leaves, in storage organ such as potato, tuber and in seeds of cereals .

Structure of Cellulose Are polymer/macromolecules of β – glucose with different structure from starch and glycogen. Cellulose is formed by 1,4 glycocidic bond of β – cell. Cellulose is very abundant in plant since it is a structural components of the cell wall, about 50% of carbon found in plants is in cellulose also it found in non vertebrate animals and pre- existing fungi It is most abundant organic molecules on earth due to its structure components of all plants cell wall i.e. 20 – 40% of the wall plant is cellulose

Structure of Cellulose & Functions Function of Cellulose Plants cells are prevented from bursting by having several layers of cellulose when water enter by osmosis Also help to maintain the shape of the cell since the direction in which they expand depends on the way the layer are arranged.

cont…. Cellulose layer are fully permeable to water and solutes and hence provide transport system to the cell. Commercially cellulose is an important for making goods and in constituents of paper and sellotape. A cell inflates with water pressure develops inside it and the cell become turgid, turgid cell help support plant which lack wood

Introduction to Glycogen Structure of Glycogen Introduction to Glycogen It is storage polysaccharides made from α-glucose, it found in animals. It is similar structure to amylopectin but it has more number of glucose It is folded in the liver (animals) and muscles where it provide energy serve and also many fungi store glycogen It is convention to glucose controlled by hormone insulin from pancrease. Glycogen forms tiny granules insides cells which are usually associated with smooth endoplasmic reticulum

The End About Carbohydrate