Persuasion and Message Effects in Communication Research Sri Kalyanaraman Media Effects and Technology Laboratory School of Journalism and Communications

Danny asks… “How can I persuade all of you to head back to my place for drinks?”

Jeff asks… “How can I persuade Shiva to get a dog?”

Introduction Attitude The all-important mediator that stands between the acquisition of new persuasive information and subsequent behavioral change Persuasion "an attempt to shape, reinforce, or change behaviors, feelings, or thoughts about an issue, object, or action" (Fogg)

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Dual Process Theories Assumes that attitude change or persuasion takes place via two routes Careful, effortful scrutiny Effortless, heuristic processing Bulk of research focus Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) Heuristic Systematic Model (HSM)

The Elaboration Likelihood Model Richard Petty & John Cacioppo Explains the process of persuasion by identifying the likelihood of a person to elaborate cognitively Elaboration Likelihood=Amount of thinking (information processing) 2 distinct routes lead to persuasion: Central Peripheral

ELM: Central Route to Persuasion Considerable cognitive effort for the audience member Attitude changes resulting from the central route show common characteristics: Persistence Behavioral Predictability Resistance to change Leads to long-term attitude change High thinking ad

ELM: Peripheral Route to Persuasion Does not involve considerable cognitive effort (I.e., you DO NOT elaborate) Use of simple cues in the persuasion context Compared to central route: Not as long-lasting Not as good a predictor of behavior Prone to counter-arguments Leads to short-term attitude change Low thinking ad

What does the model mean? People should have the motivation and ability to process information When motivation and ability are presentCentral route (you look at the strength of the arguments) Strong  favorable thoughts Weak  unfavorable thoughts In the absence of motivation and ability, persuasion is likely to occur as a result of some simple cue(s)Peripheral route

Petty, R. E. , Cacioppo, J. T. , & Goldman, R. (1981) Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Goldman, R. (1981). Personal -involvement as a determinant of argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 847-855. Procedure College students listened to 8 arguments that seniors be required to pass a comprehensive exam for graduation. IVs: Relevance: (Immediate, 10-Year Delay) Expertise of Source: (High School Report, Carnegie Commission in Higher Education) Argument Strength (Weak, Strong) DV: Attitude Toward Comprehensive Exams

Kirby, S. D. , Ureda, J. R. , Rose, R. L. , & Hussey, J. (1998) Kirby, S. D., Ureda, J. R., Rose, R. L., & Hussey, J. (1998). Peripheral cues and involvement level: Influences on acceptance of a mammography message. Journal of Health Communication, 3, 119-135. Procedure African American women (N = 89) were exposed to a mammography PSA. IVs: Involvement: (Measured variable) Peripheral Cue: (Favorable: Color film + Gospel music; Unfavorable: B&W film + Rap music) Argument Strength (Weak, Strong) DV: Desire to seek additional information

Results Interaction between involvement and peripheral cue Main effect for peripheral cue

“Peripheral Cue” Variables The likeability or attractiveness of the message source The credibility of the source The number of arguments the message contains The length of the arguments The degree to which the position is supported by others Using several sources to support arguments

The Role of Variables For persuasion to occur, three factors must be present: Source Message Recipient

Variables Source factor variables: Message factor variables: Attractiveness of the source Credibility Message factor variables: All informational items in a message Recipient factor variables: Person’s mood at the time the message is received

Examples of Persuasive Variables Argument Quality Argument Quantity Rhetorical Questions Number of Sources Source Credibility Attractiveness Background music Humor Personal Relevance Background Knowledge Intelligence Message Modality Audience Reaction Message Repetition Experise: -Cue -Can increase scrutiny when elaboration isn’t constrained. Attradtiveness: -Can incrase message scrutiny. Nuimber of sources -increases scrutiny -- a converging view is more worthy of consideration. Relavence: -Outcome-relevant: consistent with ELM -Value-Relevant: Increasing involvement led to less persuasion Rhetorical Questions -Cue for politeness of the speaker -Increases elaboration if people aren’t encouraged to think about the issue Intellegence: Can lead to greater elaboration and counter-argueing, but can be a cue “I’m more intelligent than the source, so why change my view?”

Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

Image courtesy: Carmen Neghina

Message Frames (Bernoulli, 1738; Kahneman & Tversky, 2000) What are frames? Origins in Economics and Psychology “Interpretations that people construct” (e.g., Cates et al., 2004) A constituent activity of decision making “Formulations to which people are exposed” Experimental manipulation Presentation of information Phrasing of alternatives Choice between/among alternatives Typically, message frames in communication have relied on loss (cost) and gain (benefit) frames

Examples of Message Frames (Kahneman & Tversky; Rothman & Salovey, 1997) Scenario: A campaign to promote condom use Loss frame: “If you avoid using a condom, you fail to take advantage of the best method for preventing an STD” Gain frame: “If you use a condom, you take advantage of the best method for preventing an STD” Central assumption People are risk seeking when exposed to information about losses but risk averse when exposed to information about gains

Examples of Message Frames Scenario: Imagine that the Health Dept. is preparing for the outbreak of STDs, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs (A & B) have been proposed to combat it. Gain frame: “200 people will be saved with A.” Gain frame: “There is a 1/3 chance that 600 people will be saved, and 2/3 chance that nobody will be saved with B” Which do you prefer? A! A is certain and desirable while B is risky and desirable and undesirable  preferences are risk-averse.

Examples of Message Frames Scenario: Imagine that the Health Dept. is preparing for the outbreak of STDs, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs (C & D) have been proposed to combat it. Loss frame: “400 people will die with C.” Loss frame: “There is a 1/3 chance that nobody will die, and 2/3 chance that 600 people will die with D.” Which do you prefer? D! D is risky and desirable and undesirable while C is certain and undesirable  preferences are risk-seeking.

Framing Messages in Media Normally: “1 in 4 teenagers have had oral sex…” Potentially triggers a “Everybody-is-doing-it” heuristic Alternate frame: “3 in 4 teenagers have not had oral sex…” Could potentially trigger a “Everybody-is-NOT-doing-it” heuristic

Different Frames for Different Constituents From Slovic, et al., 2004

The Role of Affect in Message Design (Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor, 2004) Affect: “Specific quality of “goodness” or “badness” experienced as a feeling state” From Slovic, et al., 2004

The Role of Affect Perceived (desirable) and (undesirable) outcomes are linked to the strength of positive or negative affect Different constituents are likely to experience different affective states for the same frame E.g., Abstinence-only frame for sugar “Good” for medical professionals (perceived benefit) “Bad” (or “not-so-good”) for children (not a perceived benefit) Effectiveness of such frames is likely to depend on the target population

Solution Have different groups (children, parents, health care providers, and policymakers) rate different attributes on affective dimensions (e.g., good/bad, nice/awful, pleasant/unpleasant) Create frames based on strength of affective responses Have each group be cognizant of the other’s “identifying” frame In particular, adolescent frames need to be understood Communicate using identified frames

Implications of Message Design Several reasons why audiences are resistant to persuasion What is. What should be!

Finally… Think about “nudge units” Nudges Cornerstone in behavioral economics Good place to start: Nudge...by Thaler & Sunstein (https://smile.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_c_2_10?url=search-alias%3Dstripbooks&field-keywords=nudge+book&sprefix=Nudge+book%2Caps%2C151&crid=NWSPFLZBD3SD)