This lecture will help you understand: Our energy sources Coal Natural gas Petroleum Alternative fossil fuels Environmental impacts of fossil fuels Strategies for conserving energy and enhancing efficiency

Central Case: oil or wilderness on Alaska’s North Slope? Alaska’s remote North Slope represents a pristine wilderness to some and untapped oil riches to others The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is the focus of intense debate over whether the “1002 Area” should be opened to drilling Opponents fear that drilling will sacrifice the nation’s national heritage for little gain

Alaska’s North Slope consists of three regions The National Petroleum Reserve – Alaska (NPR-A) Intended to remain untapped unless the nation faced an emergency It has been opened recently for drilling Prudhoe Bay consists of state lands that are drilled for oil that is transported via the trans-Alaska pipeline to the port of Valdez The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is federal land set aside for wildlife and to preserve pristine ecosystems It has been called the “Serengeti of North America”

Alaska’s North Slope

We use a variety of energy sources We use these energy sources in our homes, our machinery, to fuel our vehicles, and provide the comfort and conveniences A great deal of energy emanates from Earth’s core, enabling us to harness geothermal power An immense amount of energy resides within the bonds among protons and neutrons in atoms, and this energy provides us with nuclear power Most of our energy comes from the Sun Solar radiation Photosynthesis Fossil fuels = highly combustible substances formed from the remains of organisms

Fossil fuels are our dominant source of energy We use oil, coal, and natural gas Fossil fuels have replaced biomass as our dominant source of energy The high-energy content of fossil fuels makes them efficient to burn, ship, and store These fuels generate electricity = a secondary form of energy that is easier to transfer and apply to a variety of uses

Resources are renewable or nonrenewable Renewable energy = supplies of energy will not be depleted by our use Sunlight, geothermal energy, and tidal energy Nonrenewable energy = at our current rates of consumption we will use up Earth’s accessible store of these sources in a matter of decades to centuries Oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear energy To replenish the fossil fuels we have depleted so far would take millions of years

Fossil fuels are indeed created from fossils Fossil fuels we burn today were formed from the tissues of organisms that lived 100-500 million years ago Organic material is broken down in an anaerobic environment = one that has little or no oxygen Bottoms of deep lakes, swamps, and shallow seas Organic matter is eventually converted into crude oil, natural gas, or coal

Fossil fuel reserves are unevenly distributed Some regions have substantial reserves, whereas others have very few How long a nation’s reserves will last depends on: How much the nation extracts, uses, and exports Nearly 67% of the world’s proven reserves of crude oil lie in the Middle East The U.S. possesses more coal than any other country

Developed nations consume lots of energy People in developed regions consume far more energy than those in developing nations Industrialized nations divide their energy use evenly between transportation, industry, and other uses Developing nations use energy for subsistence activities (agriculture, food preparation, and home heating) Developing nations use manual or animal energy instead of fossil fuels

Regions vary greatly in energy consumption

It takes energy to make energy To harness, extract, process, and deliver energy requires substantial inputs of energy Roads, wells, vehicles, storage tanks Net energy = the difference between energy returned and energy invested Net energy = energy returned – energy invested

Energy returned on investment (EROI) Energy returned on investment (EROI) = energy returned/energy invested Higher ratios mean we receive more energy than we invest Ratios decline when we extract the easiest deposits first and now must work harder to extract the remaining reserves

Coal The world’s most abundant fossil fuel Coal = organic matter (woody plant material) that was compressed under very high pressure to form dense, solid carbon structures Very little decomposition occurred

Coal use has a long history The Romans used coal for heating in the second and third centuries in Britain The Chinese have used coal for 2,000 - 3,000 years Commercial mining began in the 1700s The invention of the steam engine expanded coal’s market Coal helped drive the Industrial Revolution and the steel industry In the 1880s, people used coal to generate electricity

Coal is mined from the surface and below ground Subsurface mining = underground deposits are reached by digging networks of tunnels deep underground Strip mining = heavy machinery removes huge amounts of earth to expose and extract the coal Mountaintop removal = in some cases, entire mountaintops are cut off to obtain the coal

Two forms of coal mining

Coal varies in its qualities Coal varies from place to place Water quantity and amount of potential energy it has Peat = organic material that is broken down anaerobically but remains wet, near the surface and not well compressed Widely used as a fuel in Britain Additional pressure turns peat into coal Lignite = least compressed Sub-bituminous and bituminous Anthracite = most compressed; has the most energy

Coal contains impurities Sulfur, mercury, arsenic, and other trace metals Sulfur content depends on whether coal was formed in salt water or freshwater Coal in the eastern U.S. is high in sulfur because it was formed in marine sediments When high-sulfur coal is burned, it released sulfate air pollutants, which contribute to smog and acidic deposition Mercury can bioaccumulate Ways to reduce pollution must be found

Natural gas The fastest growing fossil fuel in use today Provides 25% of global commercial energy consumption World supplies are projected to last about 60 more years

Natural gas is formed in two ways Natural gas = consists of methane (CH4) and other volatile hydrocarbons Biogenic gas = created at shallow depths by bacterial anaerobic decomposition of organic matter “swamp gas” Thermogenic gas = results from compression and heat deep underground Kerogen = organic matter that results when carbon bonds begin breaking Source material for natural gas and crude oil

Natural gas is often wasted Coalbed methane = from coal seams, leaks to the atmosphere during mining In remote oil-drilling areas, natural gas is flared: simply burned off In Alaska, gas captured during oil drilling is being reinjected into the ground for future use Landfills produce biogenic natural gas Operators are capturing and selling it

Natural gas has only recently been widely used Plutarch called naturally burning gas in Iraq “eternal fires” The first commercial extraction occurred in 1821 but was only used locally, because it could not be transferred safely First used to light street lamps, then for heating and cooking After thousands of miles of pipes were laid, natural gas transport became safer and more economical Liquefied natural gas (LNG) = liquid gas that can be shipped long distances in refrigerated tankers Russia has the largest deposits, and Russia and the U.S. lead the world in production and consumption, respectively

Natural gas extraction becomes more challenging The first gas fields simply required an opening and the gas moved upward Most remaining fields require pumping by horsehead pumps Most accessible reserves have been depleted Gas is accessed by sophisticated techniques such as fracturing, which pumps high-pressure salt water into rocks to crack them

Offshore drilling produces much of our gas Drilling takes place on land and in the seafloor on the continental shelves Technology had to come up with ways to withstand wind, waves, and currents Platforms are either strong fixed platforms or floating platforms 25% of our natural gas comes from offshore drilling Hurricanes can devastate drilling platforms, and prices rise accordingly

Heat and pressure underground form petroleum Oil is the world’s most used fuel since the 1960s It’s worldwide use over the past decade has risen 17% Crude oil (petroleum) = a mixture of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbon molecules Formed 1.5 - 3 km (1 - 2 mi) underground Dead organic material was buried in marine sediments and transformed by time, heat, and pressure Refineries separate crude oil into components such as gas, tar, and asphalt

The age of oil began in the mid-19th century People have used solid forms of oil (i.e., tar) for thousands of years Modern extraction and use began in the 1850s First bottled and sold as a healing aid, but it is carcinogenic This “rock oil” could be used lamps and as a lubricant Edwin Drake drilled the world’s first oil well, in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859 Today, the U.S. consumes 25% of the world’s oil Consumption is still increasing

Petroleum geologists infer deposit location and size Petroleum occurs in isolated deposits, collecting in porous layers beneath impermeable layers Geologists drill rock cores and conduct ground, air, and seismic surveys to map underground rock formations Estimates for ANWR’s oil deposits = 11.6 – 31.5 billion barrels, enough for 33 months at current consumption rates But, only 4.3 – 11.8 billion barrels are technically recoverable, equivalent to 1 year of consumption

Not all oil can be extracted Some oil would be so hard to extract, it is not worth the cost As prices rise, economically recoverable amounts approach technically recoverable amounts Proven recoverable reserve = the amount of oil (or any other fossil fuel) that is technically and economically feasible to remove under current conditions

Typical seismic surveying

We drill to extract oil Exploratory drilling = small, deep holes to determine whether extraction should be done Oil is under pressure and often rises to the surface Primary extraction = the initial drilling and pumping of available oil Secondary extraction = solvents, water, or stream is used to remove additional oil; expensive We lack the technology to remove every bit of oil As prices rise, it becomes economical to reopen a well

Primary and secondary oil extraction

Petroleum products have many uses Extracted oil is refined to create many products

We may have already depleted half our reserves Some people calculate that we have used up about 1.1 trillion barrels of oil Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio) = the amount of total remaining reserves divided by the annual rate of production (extraction and processing) At current levels of production (30 billion barrels/year), we have about 40 years of oil left We will face a crisis not when we run out of oil, but when the rate of production begins to decline

We are facing an oil shortage We will face a shortage when production declines and demand increases Production declines once reserves are depleted halfway, so this crisis will likely begin within the next several years Hubbard’s peak = Geologist M. King Hubbard predicted that oil production would peak around 1970 His prediction was accurate, and U.S. production continues to fall We may have passed peak global production in 2005

U.S. oil production has already peaked

Global oil production is peaking

Predicting an exact date for peak oil is hard Oil production is expected to peak in the near future as reserves deplete Amount of untapped oil reserves hard to predict Companies and governments do not disclose their amount of oil supply Disagreement among geologists Oil consumption increases at an unpredictable rate in developing countries Survival after oil depletion depends on research of new technologies and energy conservation

Peaking oil production will have consequences Coming divergence of demand and supply will have momentous economic, social, and political consequences Our lives will be profoundly affected “The long emergency”: from lacking cheap oil to transport goods, our economies collapse and become localized Suburbs will become the new slums, a crime-ridden landscape littered with the hulls of rusted out cars More optimistic observers argue that as supplies dwindle, conservation and alternative energy supplies will kick in We will be saved from major disruptions

Oil sands can be mined and processed Oil sands (tar sands) = sand deposits with 1 - 20% bitumen, a thick form of petroleum rich in carbon, poor in hydrogen Degraded and chemically altered crude oil deposits Removed by strip mining Requires special extraction and refining processes to become useful Primarily found in Venezuela and Alberta

Oil shale is abundant in the U.S. west Oil shale = sedimentary rock filled with kerogen (organic matter) that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum Can be burned like coal or baked in hydrogen (called prylosis) to produce liquid petroleum More than 40% is found in the U.S., mostly on federally owned land in the west Low prices for crude oil have kept investors away But as oil prices increase, oil shale is gaining interest

Methane hydrate shows potential Methane hydrate (methane ice) = molecules of methane in a crystal lattice of water ice molecules Occurs in arctic locations and under the seafloor Formed by bacterial decomposition in anaerobic environments Immense amounts could be present, from twice to 20 times the amount of natural gas Extraction could destablize marine ecosystems Landslides and tsunamis release of large amounts of methane (a greenhouse gas)

These alternative fossil fuels have downsides Their net energy values are low because they are expensive to extract and process They have Low Energy Returned on Energy Invested (EROI) ratios: about 3:1 compared to the 5:1 ratio on crude oil Extraction processes devastate the landscape and pollute waterways Combustion pollutes the atmosphere just as much as crude oil, coal, and gas

Fossil fuel emissions pollute Fossil fuels have harmed the environment Disrupt the carbon cycle by releasing carbon dioxide, the greatest impact of fossil fuel use Pollutants and hydrocarbons cause severe health problems Contaminates water supplies and freshwater ecosystems

Coal mining affects the environment Strip mining causes severe soil erosion and chemical runoff Acid drainage = sulfide minerals on exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid Mountaintop removal causes enormous damage

Coal mining harms human health Subsurface mining is harmful to human health Mine shaft collapses Inhalation of coal dust can lead to fatal black lung disease Costs to repair damages of mining are very high These costs are not included in the market prices of fossil fuels, which are kept inexpensive by government subsidies Mining companies must restore landscapes, but the impacts are still severe Looser of restrictions in 2002 allowed companies to dump rock and soil into valleys, regardless of the consequences

Scientists anticipate negative impacts in ANWR Some scientists anticipate damage if ANWR is drilled Vegetation killed Degraded air and water quality Roads fragment habitat Prospecting and drilling disrupts wildlife Other scientists say little harm will be done ANWR will be developed with environmentally sensitive technology and approaches

Nations can become dependent on foreign energy This causes unrest and conflict We are vulnerable to supplies becoming unavailable or expensive The U.S. imports 60% of its crude oil, meaning other nations control our energy supplies

The oil embargo of the 1970s caused panic OPEC’s (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) oil embargo caused widespread panic and skyrocketing prices

Oil supply and prices affect nation’s economies Hurricanes Katrina and Rita destroyed offshore drilling systems and spiked oil prices Because the politically volatile Middle East has the majority of oil reserves, crises are a constant concern for the U.S. Despite political disagreements, the U.S. has a close relationship with Saudi Arabia because Saudi Arabia owns 22% of the world’s oil reserves

The U.S. enacted policies to reduce foreign oil The U.S. government enacted policies to diversify its oil supply It imports oil from several countries The U.S. is developing its own reserves Proposed drilling in ANWR, despite charges that drilling won’t help much Resuming extraction at currently closed sites Research into renewable energy sources The Strategic Petroleum Reserve stockpiles oil in caverns under Louisiana for use when world supplies run out But this reserve equals just one month’s supply

The global trade in oil is lopsided

Residents may or may not benefit from reserves Extraction can benefit residents of the area with: Increased job opportunities Trickling down of profits Citizens in Alaska are paid dividends by the government But residents are not always compensated for pollution and displacement

How will we convert to renewable energy? Fossil fuel supplies are limited and their use has consequences Nations have several options for future energy use Continue relying on fossil fuels until they are no longer available Increase funding to develop alternative energy sources dramatically Steer a middle course and gradually reduce our reliance on fossil fuels

Our reliance on fossil fuels has consequences

Energy conservation Energy conservation = the practice of reducing energy use to: Extend the life of our nonrenewable energy supplies Be less wasteful Reduce environmental impact

Energy conservation has followed need Conservation usually only occurs in time of need OPEC embargo of 1973 drastically increased conservation, but it didn’t last Government research into alternative energy sources decreased The failure to improve fuel economy has increased our oil consumption Taxes on gasoline are extremely low, meaning that gasoline does not account for its substantial external costs on production and consumption

CAFE standards The U.S. government has failed to enforce corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFE) standards, which mandate higher fuel efficiency in automobiles

Drilling in ANWR will not fill U.S. oil demand

Personal choice and efficiency Energy conservation can be accomplished in two ways: Individuals can make conscious choices to reduce energy consumption in everyday life and drastically increase conservation Driving less, turning off lights, buying efficient machines Society can make energy-consuming devices more efficient Also helps reduce the enormous amounts of energy wasted every day

We already have the technology needed To increase fuel efficiency The efficiency of power plants Cogeneration = excess heat produced during electrical generation is used to heat buildings and produce other types of power

Efficiency among consumer products Improvements in home design can reduce energy required to heat and cool them Scores of appliances have been reengineered to increase energy efficiency Consumers need to vote with their wallets by buying energy-efficient products

Conservation and renewable energy is needed Effective energy conservation could save 6 million barrels of oil a day Conserving energy is better than finding a new reserve It decreases environmental impacts while extending our access to fossil fuels The only sustainable way of reliable supply of energy is to ensure sufficiently rapid development of renewable energy

Conclusion Fossil fuels have helped us build our complex industrialized societies We are now approaching a turning point in history: fossil fuel production will begin to decline We can encourage conservation and alternative energy sources Or we can wait until fossil fuels are depleted Renewable energy sources are becoming feasible and economical, and it becomes easier to envision giving up on our reliance on fossil fuels and charting a win-win future for humanity and the environment

QUESTION: Review Which energy source is the most abundant but the dirtiest to extract? Coal Natural gas Petroleum None of the above Answer: a

QUESTION: Review What is “mountaintop removal”? The tops of mountains are removed while drilling for oil The tops of mountains are removed while mining for coal Mountaintops are deforested to access natural gas sites There is no such thing as removing a mountain’s top Answer: b

QUESTION: Review created in shallow water created by bacteria Natural gas that has been formed thermogenically was…. created in shallow water created by bacteria also called swamp gas created deep underground Answer: d

QUESTION: Review _____ contains the most oil in the world, while ______ consumes the most. Mexico, Japan Kuwait, France Saudi Arabia, the U.S. The U.S., the U.S. Answer: c

QUESTION: Review It is estimated that we have already depleted ___% of our oil reserves 25% 50% 75% 100% Answer: b

QUESTION: Review How are oil sands extracted? By strip mining By drilling By burning By chemical extraction Answer: a

QUESTION: Review Black lung disease comes from…. Drilling for oil Mining for gold Mining for coal Drilling for natural gas Answer: c

QUESTION: Weighing the Issues How will your life be affected if oil becomes even more expensive? What will you do? I will start conserving gasoline by walking more or carpooling I need my car, so I will just have to earn more money It won’t affect me, because I already minimize my driving It won’t affect me, because I have enough money to afford gasoline Answer: any

QUESTION: Weighing the Issues Should the government raise taxes on gasoline to reflect its true cost? Yes; that would make people conserve gasoline Yes, but poor people would need subsidies to help them buy gasoline No; I don’t want to pay more for gasoline I don’t care; I have enough money to pay for expensive gasoline Answer: any

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data According to this graph, the contribution of oil from ANWR will be…. a) Extremely significant b) Extremely insignificant c) Very high d) Worth drilling for Answer: b

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data According to this graph, which area has already peaked in oil production? Polar oil Deepwater oil Lower 48 US states None of them Answer: c