Measuring Social Life: How Many? How Much? What Type? Chapter 5

Why Measure? Some reasons: evaluate an explanation test a hypothesis provide empirical support for a theory make a decision about medical treatment study an applied issue More central to quantitative research than qualitative research.

Making Aspects of the Social World Visible We use many measures in daily life. Measurement extends the range of our senses. Measures make otherwise unseen ideas become visible

Measuring with Numbers or Words Timing Direction Data Form Linkages

Measuring with Numbers or Words Two Parts of the Measurement Process Conceptualization = refining an idea by giving it a very clear, explicit definition. Conceptual Definition = Defining a variable or concept in theoretical terms with assumptions and references to other concepts. Operationalization = the process of linking a conceptual definition with specific measures. Operational Definition = defining a concept as specific operations or actions that you carry to measure it.

Measuring with Numbers or Words Quantitative Conceptualization and Operationalization Three-part sequence: Conceptualization Operationalization Measurement Conceptual hypothesis = Stating a hypothesis with the variables as abstract concepts. Empirical hypothesis = the hypothesis stated in terms of specific measures of variables.

Why Measure? Qualitative Conceptualization and Operationalization Ideas are in flux during data collection Definitions become clarified during data collection.

Why Measure?

Why Measure? QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE 1. Conceptualize variables by developing a clear, complete written conceptual definition for the core idea of each. You want build on past theories, consider definitions others have used, and be very logical. 1. Gather empirical data and simultaneously think about concepts to organize and make sense of the data. Develop a clear definitions for each idea that you use. They may be ones you have read about, new ideas you create, or ones that the people you are studying use. 2. Operationalize variables by creating specific activities to measure each. This is your operational definition that will closely match how you have defined the variable in its conceptual definition. 2. As you gather data, be very aware of processes you use to make sense of the data and your own thinking. Reflect on and describe this process of linking ideas to specific observations in the data. 3. Gather empirical data using the specific measurement activities of your operational definition, this links data to the conceptual definition. 3. Review and refine your definitions and the descriptions of how you gathered data and made sense of it.

How to Create Good Measures: Reliability and Validity Creating a Good Measure Keep an open mind. Borrow from others. Anticipate difficulties. Do not forget your unit of analysis.

How to Create Good Measures: Reliability and Validity Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research Reliability = A feature of measures – the method of measuring is dependable and consistent. Clearly Conceptualize. Increase the Level of Measurement. Use Multiple Indicators. Multiple indicators = Having several different specific measures that to indicate the same concept. Use Pilot Studies and Replication.

How to Create Good Measures: Reliability and Validity Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research Validity = A feature of measures; the concept of interest closely matches the method used to measure it. Measurement validity is the fit between conceptual and operational definitions Validity is more difficult to achieve than reliability.

How to Create Good Measures: Reliability and Validity Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research Three Types of Measurement Validity Face Validity. Content Validity Criterion Validity

How to Create Good Measures: Reliability and Validity Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research measure in a thoughtful and consistent manner, so that it is dependable measure in a consistent and self-conscious way Measure with authenticity. Authenticity means a fair, honest, and balanced account of social life that captures what is “real” for particular people living in a specific time and place.

How to Create Good Measures: Reliability and Validity Putting Reliability and Validity Together Reliability is easier to achieve than validity. Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity. A measure can produce the same result over and over but what it measures may not match the definition of the construct (i.e., validity). You can have a reliable measure that is invalid.

How to Create Good Measures: Reliability and Validity

A Guide to Quantitative Measurement Levels of Measurement Measurement = The degree a measure is refined or precise. Continuous and Discrete Variables Continuous Variable = A variable that can be measured with numbers that can be subdivided into smaller increments. Discrete variable = A variable measured with a limited number of fixed categories.

A Guide to Quantitative Measurement Levels of Measurement Four Levels of Measurement Nominal measures Ordinal measures Interval measures Ratio measures

A Guide to Quantitative Measurement Level Different Categories Ranked Distance between Categories Measured True Zero Nominal Yes   Ordinal Interval Ratio

A Guide to Quantitative Measurement Specialized Measures: Scales and Indexes Scale = A measure that captures a concept’s intensity, direction, or level at the ordinal level of measurement. Index = A composite measure that combines several indicators into a single score.

A Guide to Quantitative Measurement Specialized Measures: Scales and Indexes Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Attributes. Mutually exclusive = each units fits into one, and only one, category of a variable. Exhaustive = all units fit into some category of a variable. Unidimensionality Unidimensionality = All items of an index or scale measure the same concept or have a common dimension.

Adding Measures to Get a Score: Index Construction To create an index, you combine two or more items into a single numerical score. Two complications in index construction 1. Count items equally or weight them? 2. The missing data issue

Capturing Intensity: Scale Construction Scale = A measure that captures the intensity of a person’s behaviors or feelings. Some Commonly Used Scales Likert Scale. Measuring Social Distance Semantic Differential Guttman Scaling

Capturing Intensity: Scale Construction Summary Review Major Scales Likert—General Attitude Measure Indicates attitude using ranked answers showing degree of agreement/support. Semantic Differential—Indirect Evaluation Measure Indicates subjective feelings using connotations in adjective sets. Bogardus—Social Distance Measure Indicates acceptance of various levels of social intimacy with out-groups. Guttman—Structural of Response Measure Indicates whether a set of items corresponds to a hierarchical pattern Out-group Sociologists define an outgroupas a group to which you do not belong and from which you feel separated