1. CHAPTER 6, INDEXES, SCALES, AND TYPOLOGIES

2. Chapter Outline Indexes versus Scales Index Construction
Scale Construction
Typologies
Quick Quiz

3. Why do quantitative researchers use composite measures?
No clear, unambiguous single indicators
Ex: alienation
Use ordinal measure
Ex: arranging cases in several ordinal categories like very low to very high
Efficient for data analysis
Provides more accurate indication than a single would.
Summarize several indicators in a single numerical score

4. Index or Scale
Index constructed by simply accumulating scores assigned to individual indicators
Scales are constructed by assigning scores to patterns of responses, recognizing that some items reflect a relatively weak degree of the variable whereas others reflect something stronger.

5. Index versus Scale Commonalities
Both scales and indexes are ordinal measures of variables.
Both scales and indexes are composite measures of variables – measurements based on more than one data item.

6. Differences
Index – A type of composite measure that summarizes and rank-orders several specific observations and represents some more general dimensions.
Scale – A type of composite measure composed of several items that have a logical or empirical structure among them.

7. Figure 6.1

8. Figure 6.1

9. Scales are generally superior to indexes, because scales take into consideration the intensity with which different items reflects that variable being measured.

10. Misconceptions
Whether the combination of several data items results in a scale almost always depends on the particular sample of observations under study.
The use of specific scaling techniques does not ensure the creation of a scale.

11. Index Construction Item Selection
Examination of Empirical Relationships
Index Scoring
Handling Missing Data
Index Validation

12. When selecting items, keep in mind…
Item Selection
Face Validity – make sense logically?
Unidimensionality – should represent only one dimension of a concept. So, measure religiosity, not political conservatism (even if the two are empirically related)

13. When selecting items, keep in mind…
General or Specific? – if you’re measuring specific dimension you should gear indicators to that dimension.
Variance – has to be sufficient enough to capture diversity of dimension not not too much. If a given item no one identifies or everyone identifies as a conservative it is not useful.

14. Empirical Relationships
Examination of Empirical Relationships
An empirical relationship is established when respondents’ answers to one question help us predict how they will answer other questions.
Bivariate Relationships – A relationship between two variables.
Multivariate Relationships – A relationship between more than two variables.

15. Figure 6.2

16. Figures 6.3 & 6.4

17. Index Scoring Determine the desirable range of the index scores.
Conflicting desire for a range of measurement in the index and an adequate number of cases at each point in the index.
Determine whether to give each item in the index equal or different weights.
Standard: items should be weighted equally unless there are compelling reasons for differential weighting.

18. Handing Missing Data
If there are few cases with missing data, you may decide to exclude them from the construction of the index and analyses.
Treat missing data as one of the available responses.
Analyze the missing data to interpret their meaning.
Assign missing data the middle value, or the mean value
Assign values to the proportion of variables scored.

19. Index Validation
Item Analysis – An assessment of whether each of the items included in a composite measure makes an independent contribution or merely duplicates the contribution of other items in the measure.
External Validation – The process of testing the validity of a measure, such as an index or score, by examining its relationship to other, presumed indicators of the same variable.

20. Bad Index versus Bad Validators?
If internal item analysis shows inconsistent relationships between items included in the index and the index itself, something is wrong with the index.
If the index fails to predict the external validation items, then:
1)index doesn’t adequately measure variable in question
2) the validation items don’t (thereby nullifying the test of the index).

21. Scale Construction
Bogardus Social Distance Scale – A measurement technique for determining the willingness of people to participate in social relations – of varying degrees of closeness – with other kinds of people.
Thurstone Scales – A type of composite measure constructed in accord with the weights assigned by “judges” (analyze items thought to be indicators of a given variable assigning scores) to various indicators of some variables.
If process is done correctly, the benefits of Bogardus scale would emerge)
Not used much today.

22. Bogardus Social Distance Scale

23. Likert Scaling – A type of composite measure, designed to improve the levels of measurement in social research through the use of standardized response categories to determine the relative intensity of different items.
Creates an average index score
Semantic Differential – A questionnaire format in which the respondent is asked to rate something in terms of two, opposite adjectives.

24. Likert Scale Example

25. Semantic Differential Scale: Feelings about Musical Selections

26. Guttman Scaling
Guttman Scaling – A type of composite measure used to summarize several discrete observations and to represent some more-general variable.
Useful because it adds logic of Bogardus
Your response to a series of questions or measures, gives you your score.
Do you agree or disagree that abortions should be permitted, for example?
Next slide

28. Typologies
Typology – The classification of observations in terms of their attributes on two or more variables.
Scales and indexes summarize a single dimension, typology summarizes two or more dimensions. 
Summarizes the intersection of two or more variables, thereby creating a set of categories or types, a typology.

29. Typology Example 1. Political Ideology
A) Democratic
B) Non-Democratic
2. Military and Industrial Sophistication
A) Low
B) High

30. Qualitative Example

31. Quick Quiz

32. 1. In order to achieve broad coverage of various dimensions of a concept, researchers need to make:
single observations
field research observations
multiple observations

33. ANSWER: C. In order to achieve broad coverage of various dimensions of a concept, researchers need to make multiple observations.

34. 2. Which of the following are common characteristics shared by both indexes and scales?
both are ordinal measures
both rank-order units in terms of specific variables
both are composite measures
all of the above

35. ANSWER: D. The following are common characteristics shared by both indexes and scales: both are ordinal measure, both rank-order units in terms of specific variables, and both are composite measures.

36. 3. Which of the following represent steps in the construction of an index?
selecting possible items
examining empirical relationships
scoring the index
all of these choices

37. ANSWER: D. The following represent steps in the construction of an index: selecting possible items, examining empirical relationships and scoring the index.

38. 4. An empirical relationship is established when respondents’ answers to one question help us:
observe a statistical correlation between the two variables.
determine their current level of tolerance.
explain away the observed correlation.
predict how they will answer other questions.

39. ANSWER: D. An empirical relationship is established when respondents’ answers to one question help us predict how they will answer other questions.

40. 5. Which of these represents a questionnaire format in which the respondent is asked to rate something in terms of two?
cross-sectional studies
longitudinal studies
likert scales
semantic differential

41. ANSWER: D. Semantic differential represents a questionnaire format in which the respondent is asked to rate something in terms of two.

42. 6. We construct a/n _____ simply by accumulating scores assigned to individual attributes.
study
measurement
scale
index

43. ANSWER: D. We construct an index simply by accumulating scores assigned to individual attributes.

44. 7. _____ is the process of testing the validity of a measure by examining its relationship to other indicators of the same variable.
Theoretical analysis
Internal validation
External validation
Conceptualization

45. ANSWER: C. External validation is the process of testing the validity of a measure by examining its relationship to other indicators of the same variable.