Map Link: Religious Divisions in France during the Wars of Religion: <http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/262/268312/ art/figures/KISH291.jpg>

Sources of Tension in 16th c. France: Relations of Valois kings with nobles and towns Discontented peasantry Royal control of the church Catholics vs. Calvinists (Huguenots)

Major players: Valois kings (Catholic) Noble families: Guise (Catholic), Montmorency (Catholic), Bourbon (Huguenot) Catholics and Huguenots

1559 Death of Henry II of France (r. 1547-1559) while jousting Francis II (r. 1559-60) Catherine de’ Medici (1519-89)

1560 Bourbon (Huguenot) conspiracy to kidnap Francis II foiled. Francis dies and is succeeded by Charles IX (r. 1560-74) 1562-72 Wars between Catholics and Huguenots in France 24th Aug 1572 Scheduled date for peace celebrations in France (St Bartholomew’s Day) Margaret of Valois Henry of Navarre (Catholic) (Bourbon, Huguenot)

Gaspard de Coligny (Huguenot leader) 23rd Aug 1572 Charles IX orders extermination of Huguenot leadership 24th Aug St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, led by Henry of Guise “Kill them, kill them all, it is the king’s command!”

1574-89 Reign of Henry III as king of France 1576 Henry makes peace with Huguenots. Catholic dévots (fanatics) form Catholic League politiques (moderates) Michel de Montaigne (1533-92) Essays

1584 Death of Duke of Anjou (heir to throne). Henry of Navarre becomes heir. Leads to… War of the Three Henries (1585-89): King Henry III of Valois (Catholic, “King”) Henry of Guise (Catholic, “Guise”) Henry of Navarre (Bourbon, Huguenot “Navarre”)

1585 King initially allies with Navarre and Duke of Montmorency vs. Guise, but switches sides Catherine de’ Medici and Guise overturn edicts tolerating Huguenots 1587 Navarre defeats King’s forces at Courtras May 1588 Guise marches on Paris. Parisians drive King out, make Guise “King of Paris.” King makes Cardinal de Bourbon his heir

22nd Dec 1588 King has Guise killed King allies with Navarre vs. Catholic League 1st Apr 1589 King killed. Navarre becomes king Henry IV (r. 1589-1610)

1589-94 Henry IV defeats enemies, takes control of France 1593 Henry IV reconverts to Catholicism, but retains Huguenot counsellor Duke de Sully (1560-1641) “Paris is well worth a Mass.” Marie de’ Medici (1573-1642)

1595-98 Henry IV fights war with Spain 1598 Last forces of Catholic League capitulate. Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes Economic reform “Henri le Grand” (Henry the Great) 14th May 1610 Henry IV killed by monk François Ravaillac

Louis XIII (r. 1610-43) 1617 Louis exiles Marie de’ Medici 1622 Louis completes suppression of rebellions 1624 Louis appoints Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu as first minister

Extending royal power: 32 généralités (districts) Subduing Huguenots and others Opposing Spain in Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) Defeating opponents

Strengthening French Monarchy: Enhanced prestige of monarch Improving financial health of kingdom Asserting position on European stage Asserting military power Laying foundation for absolute monarchy

Thirty Years’ War: 1. Bohemian (1618-25) 2. Danish (1625-29) 3. Swedish (1630-35) 4. Swedish-French (1635-48) Map Link: The Thirty Years’ War: <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/ Map_Thirty_Years_War-en.svg/462px-Map_Thirty_Years _War-en.svg.png>

Causes: 1. Rise of Calvinism 2. Catholic ambitions 3. French-Habsburg tensions 4. Fragmented Holy Roman Empire

1617 Ferdinand of Habsburg elected King of Bohemia 1618 Defenestration of Ferdinand’s officials in Prague 1619 Ferdinand elected Holy Roman Emperor (Ferdinand II, r. 1619-37)

1608 Formation of Protestant Union by Frederick V 1609 Formation of Catholic League 1619 Rebellion in Bohemia in favour of Frederick V, supported by Protestant Union and Transylvanians. Opposed by Catholic Union and Spanish under Maximilian of Bavaria and Count Johannes von Tilly (1559-1632)

8th Nov 1620 Battle of the White Mountain 1621 Dissolution of Protestant Union

Christian IV of Denmark (r. 1588-1648), also Duke of Holstein Albrecht Wallenstein (1583-1634) 1625-29 Wallenstein and Tilly defeat Christian and invade Jutland

22nd May 1629 Christian IV renounces ambitions in Germany Mecklenburg lands given to Wallenstein 6th Mar 1629 Ferdinand II issues Edict of Restitution: Prohibits Calvinist worship Orders return of Catholic Church’s property

1630 Diet of Regensburg demands dismissal of Wallenstein and his army Gustavus II Adolphus (r. 1611-31), the “Lion of the North” July 1630 Adolphus lands in Pomerania

17th Sep 1631 Adolphus defeats Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig 16th Nov 1632 Battle of Lützen, near Leipzig, between Adolphus and Wallenstein

Axel Oxenstierna leads Swedish campaign after Adolphus’ death 25th Feb 1634 Wallenstein killed by Irish mercenary 6th Sep 1634 Imperial and Spanish forces defeat Swedes at Nördlingen Ferdinand II takes most of Germany, but annuls Edict of Restitution

Pope Urban VIII (p. 1623-44) 1640 Rebellions in Portugal and Catalonia 19th May 1643 French defeat Spanish at Rocroi in Netherlands Ferdinand III (r. 1637-57)

1643 Start of peace talks 1648 Peace of Westphalia 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees, between France and Spain 1660 Peace agreements between Sweden and Denmark, and Sweden and Poland 1667 Peace agreement between Poland and Russia

Map Link: Europe, 1648: <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Europe_ map_1648.PNG>

Peace of Westphalia: Ceding territory to France and Sweden Reaffirming Peace of Augsburg, extended to Calvinists Halting Catholic recovery of Holy Roman Empire

Map Link: The Holy Roman Empire, 1648: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg>

German states effectively sovereign, with right to conduct international diplomacy Consent of Reichstag required for new laws, taxes, wars – destroying power of the emperor Vacuum in Germany– to be filled by French, English, Dutch

Political changes: Establishing modern system of sovereign states Absence of religious or political unity in Europe Reduced influence of religion on politics - now trumped by state interests

Human impact of war: looting, death, torture, starvation, disease

Jacques-Auguste de Thou (Thuanus, 1553-1617) French statesman, bibliophile, historiographer Studied law, but became canon of Notre Dame. Served as councillor of state, then (in 1595), became president of Paris parlement

Jacques-Auguste de Thou (Thuanus, 1553-1617) 1598 Negotiated Edict of Nantes Opposed Council of Trent, persecuted by Catholic Church Historia sui Temporis (History of His Own Time), banned by Catholic Church