Memory Construction “To Some Degree All Memory is False”

Memory Jigsaw Analogy Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces. People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory Brain fills in the gaps for you like it does for our blind spot

Reconstructing Memories: Sources of Potential Errors – Why the details change over time Two general areas that errors occur in memory reconstruction Info stored before the memory occurred may interfere Info stored after the memory occurred may interfere

Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Does research in memory construction Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Demonstrated the misinformation effect

Misinformation Effect Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event Affects eyewitness testimony Elizabeth Loftis explains her experiments on Misinformation/attribution effect. (3 min)

Memory Distortion Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information Do politicians do this? How? Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas

Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Watch this study explained 1:20-5:35 (4 min) Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

Loftus Results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed collided bumped hit contacted 41 m.p.h. 39 m.p.h. 38 m.p.h. 34 m.p.h. 32 m.p.h. Hockenbury slides (Schulman)

MISINFORMATION As Memory fades with time following an event, the injection of misinformation becomes easier. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event Imagination Inflation occurs because visualizing something and actually perceiving it activates similar brain areas.

Schemas Schemas – organized clusters of knowledge and info about particular topics. What’s your schema for a dog? Contribute to memory distortions when the info learned is inconsistent with previously learned schemas. When unsure of a detail, you’ll rely on your schemas to fill in the gaps.

Eyewitness Testimony Scripts—type of schema Mental organization of events in time Example of a classroom script: Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc. Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

Sources of Potential Errors False Memory – distorted and inaccurate memory that feels completely real and is often accompanied by all the emotional impact of a real memory. Source Confusion/Amnesia – true source of the memory (how, when, & where it was acquired) is forgotten. Something you’ve heard or seen in a film or book is confused with something that really happened to you Déjà vu – “already seen” something seems familiar but you’re unsure where you’ve encountered it before.

Eyewitness Testimony Recall not an exact replica of original events What you recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas Schema—mental representation of an object, scene or event Example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc. Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

Factors that Influence Memory

Memory Construction: Children’s Recall

Children’s Testimony on Abuse Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable Children are very open to suggestions As children mature their memories improve “Doctor’s Visit” study – children misremembered 55% of the time when later questioned. See examples from Frontline Documentary

Accurate Interviewing Methods To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should: Phrase questions in a way the child can understand Have no prior contact with the child Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers