© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION AND KEITH MORRISON CASE STUDIES © LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION AND KEITH MORRISON

STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER What is a case study? Types of case study Advantages and disadvantages of case study Generalization in case study Reliability and validity in case studies Planning a case study Case study design and methodology Sampling in case studies Data in case studies Writing up a case study What makes a good case study researcher? © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

WHAT IS A CASE STUDY? A case study is a specific, holistic, often unique instance that is frequently designed to illustrate a more general principle. A case study provides a unique example of real people in real situations. A detailed examination of a small sample. The study of an instance in action. The study of an evolving situation. Case studies portray ‘what it is like’ to be in a particular situation. Case studies often include direct observations (participant and non-participant) and interviews. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

WHAT IS A CASE? A PERSON A GROUP AN ORGANIZATION AN EVENT © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

ELEMENTS OF CASE STUDY Rich, vivid and holistic description (‘thick description’) and portrayal of events, contexts and situations through the eyes of participants (including the researcher). Contexts are temporal, physical, organizational, institutional, interpersonal. Chronological narrative. Combination of description, analysis and interpretation. Focus on actors and participants. Let the data speak for themselves (don’t over-interpret). © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

ELEMENTS OF CASE STUDY In-depth study of one setting. A focus on processes, interactions and relationships. A concern for the particular. Multiple methods of data collection. Focus on natural settings. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

TYPES OF CASE STUDY Exploratory (pilot) Descriptive (e.g. narrative) Explanatory Interpretive Evaluative Intrinsic case studies (understand a case) Instrumental case studies (examine a case to gain insight into an issue or theory) Collective case studies (groups of individual studies to gain a fuller picture) © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

TYPES OF CASE STUDY Reflexive case study Longitudinal case study Includes the personal reflections of the researcher as the case/practitioner in question Longitudinal case study To catch changes over time, the dynamics of evolving situations and a sense of the history of an event or events Cumulative case study Case study or studies which provide a cumulative body of data about a topic, phenomenon or situation Collective case study Working separately and sometimes asynchronously to gather data about a particular phenomenon, situation or topic Collaborative case study Working with others within and across institutions, to gather multiple perspectives and contexts © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

DESIGNS IN CASE STUDY Embedded, single-case design a critical case, an extreme case, a unique case, a representative or typical case, a revelatory case (an opportunity to research a case heretofore unresearched. Embedded, single-case design more than one ‘unit of analysis’ is incorporated into the design, e.g. a case study of a whole school might also use sub-units of classes, teachers, students, parents, and each of these might require different data collection instruments. Multiple-case design comparative case studies within an overall piece of research, or replication case studies. Embedded multiple-case design different sub-units may be involved in each of the different cases, and a range of instruments used for each sub-unit, and each is kept separate to each case. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

KEY QUESTIONS IN CASE STUDY What exactly is the case(s)? How are cases identified and selected? What kind of case study is this (what is its purpose)? What is reliable evidence? What is objective evidence? What is an appropriate selection to include from the wealth of generated data? What is a fair and accurate account? Under what circumstances is it fair to take an exceptional case or a critical event? What kind of sampling is most appropriate? © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

KEY QUESTIONS IN CASE STUDY To what extent is triangulation required and how will this be addressed? What is the nature of the validation process in the case study? How will the balance be struck between uniqueness and generalization? What is the most appropriate form of writing up and reporting the case study? What ethical issues are exposed in undertaking the case study? © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

DATA IN CASE STUDIES Observations (structured to unstructured) Field notes Interviews (structured to unstructured) Documents Numbers © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

TRIANGULATION Time Place Methodologies Instrumentation Researchers Participants Theory (interpretive paradigms/lenses) © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

ROLE OF RESEARCHER (Stake, 1995) Researcher’s role Teacher Evaluator Interpreter Biographer Advocate © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDIES Can establish cause and effect. Rooted in real contexts. Regard context as determinant of behaviour. The whole is more than the sum of the parts (holism). Strong on reality. Recognize and accept complexity, uniqueness and unpredictability. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDIES Lead to action (link to action research). Can focus on critical incidents. Written in accessible style and are immediately intelligible. Practicable (can be done by a single researcher). Can permit generalizations and application to similar situations. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

GENERALIZATION IN CASE STUDY From the single instance to the class of instances. From features of the single case to classes with the same features. From the single features of part of the case to the whole of the case. From a single case to a theoretical extension or theoretical generalization. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN CASE STUDIES Construct validity Internal validity External validity Concurrent validity Convergent validity Ecological validity Reliability Avoidance of bias The need for a chain of evidence © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

A GOOD CASE STUDY RESEARCHER MUST BE . . . An effective questioner, listener and prober. An effective observer. Able to make informed inferences. Adaptable to changing and emerging situations. Versed in research methods. Able to collate and synthesize data. Able to maintain confidences and to act with discretion and confidentiality. Versed in relevant subject knowledge. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

WHY PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION? Observation studies are superior to experiments and surveys when data are being collected on non-verbal behaviour. Investigators can discern ongoing behaviour as it occurs and are able to make appropriate notes about its salient features. Researchers can develop more intimate and informal relationships with those they are observing, and in natural environments. Case study observations are less reactive than other types of data-gathering methods. Direct observation is faithful to the real-life, in situ and holistic nature of a case study. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

PLANNING A CASE STUDY Consider the particular circumstances of the case The possible disruption to individual participants that participation might entail; Negotiating access to people; Negotiating ownership of the data; Negotiating release of the data. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

PLANNING A CASE STUDY Consider the conduct of the study including: The use of primary and secondary sources; The opportunities to check data; Triangulation; Peer and respondent validation; Reflexivity; Data collection methods; Data analysis and interpretation; Theory generation; Writing the report Consider the consequences of the research (and for whom). © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

SIX ‘KEY DECISIONS’ IN APPROACHING THE PLANNING OF A CASE STUDY Self-reflection Where you actually are Research questions Where you wish to go Defending your methodological approach Strategic approaches Who will do what, when and with whom Getting organized What will go where, when Presenting the findings © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

STAGES IN CASE STUDY Start with a wide field of focus Progressive focusing Draft interpretation/report (avoid generalizing too early) © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

CONTINUA OF DATA IN CASE STUDIES QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE NATURAL ARTIFICIAL UNSTRUCTURED STRUCTURED NARRATIVE NUMERIC JOURNALISTIC STATISTICAL © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

DATA TYPES IN CASE STUDY Documents Archival records Interviews Direct observation Participant observation Physical artefacts Actual data gathered, recorded and organized by entry, and the researcher’s ongoing analysis/report/ comments/narrative on the data © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

RECORDING OBSERVATIONS Record the notes as quickly as possible after observation. Discipline yourself to write notes quickly. Dictating rather than writing is acceptable. Word-processing field notes is vastly preferable to handwriting. Keep backup copies of field notes. The notes ought to be full enough adequately to summon up for one again, months later, a reasonably vivid picture of any described event. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

WRITING UP A CASE STUDY Executive summary followed by detail. A prose account is provided, interspersed with relevant figures, tables, emergent issues, analysis and conclusion. Examine the same case through two or more lenses (e.g. explanatory, descriptive, theoretical). Follow a simple sequence or chronology, interspersed with commentaries, interpretations and explanations. Have a structure that follows theoretical constructs or a case that is being made. Order by main issues. Consider rival explanations. © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors

PROBLEMS WITH CASE STUDIES Difficult to organize Limited generalizability Problems of cross-checking Risk of bias, selectivity and subjectivity © 2018 Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison; individual chapters, the contributors