Theories and Methods in Social Psychology Chapter 1 Chapter 1 Theories and Methods in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall

The Social Psychological Approach Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall The Social Psychological Approach Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to others. people’s perceptions and attitudes, their interactions among others, the interpersonal level of analysis rather than the societal or individual level

Historical Roots of Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Historical Roots of Social Psychology Historically, three major perspectives influenced social psychology: Psychoanalytic Theory Behaviorism Gestalt Psychology

Historical Roots of Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Historical Roots of Social Psychology Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud’s theory emphasizing unconscious motivation. Behaviorism: analysis of learning that focuses on observed behavior. Gestalt Psychology: Theory that people form coherent and meaningful perceptions based on the whole, not individual parts.

Theories in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Theories in Social Psychology Motivational Learning Cognitive Decision-Making Interdependence Sociocultural Evolutionary

Theories in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Theories in Social Psychology Motivational Theories: focus on the individual’s own need or motives. Learning Theories: contend that a person’s current behavior is determined by prior experience. Social Learning Theory: contends that learning is based on reinforcement and modeling.

Theories in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Theories in Social Psychology Learning Theories: contend that a person’s current behavior is determined by prior experience. Social Learning Theory: learning is based on reinforcement and modeling. Reinforcement: learning based on rewards. Observational: learning by watching others. Modeling: imitating/copying others.

Theories in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Theories in Social Psychology Cognitive Theories: emphasizes that a person’s behavior depends on the way he or she perceives the social situation. Decision-Making Theories: contend that people rationally calculate the costs and benefits of various actions. Expectancy-Value Theory: contends that decisions are based on the value of outcomes and the probability each will occur.

Theories in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Theories in Social Psychology Sociocultural perspective: emphasizes how behavior is influenced by cultural values, social norms, and social roles. Cultures differ in the relative emphasis they give to individualism versus collectivism.

Theories in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Theories in Social Psychology Culture: shared beliefs, values, traditions, and behavior patterns of a group. Socialization: process of acquiring the rules, standards, and values of a group. Social Norms: rules and expectations about how group members should behave. Social Role: set of social norms about how a person in a particular social position should behave.

Individualism & Collectivism Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Individualism & Collectivism Individualism: belief in the value of personal identity, uniqueness, and freedom (Westernized White cultures) Collectivism: emphasis on loyalty to the family, adherence to group norms, and harmonious social relations (African, Asian, and Latin Americans and Eastern cultures)

Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Culture affects all facets of life from our favorite foods to our beliefs about masculinity and femininity.

Theories in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Theories in Social Psychology Evolutionary Social Psychology applies the principles of evolution and natural selection to the understanding of human behavior and social life. Evolved Psychological Mechanisms: human tendencies and preferences resulting from natural selection

Social Psychological Theories Today Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Social Psychological Theories Today combine and integrate different theoretical traditions. “middle-range theories” or models to explain specific aspects of human behavior, are emphasized.

Methods in Social Psychology Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Methods in Social Psychology Scientific methodology minimizing biases is emphasized. Four broad goals of research: Description Causal analysis Theory building Application

Selecting Research Participants Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Selecting Research Participants Ideal samples are representative of the population from which they come. Random sampling is the best way to get a representative sample.

Correlational versus Experimental Designs Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Correlational versus Experimental Designs Correlational Research: involves testing the association between two or more factors, known as variables Reverse-Causality Problem: the direction of causality is unknown: Does A cause B, or vice versa? Third-Variable Problem: if two variables are correlated, is one the cause of the other? Or is some third variable the cause of both?

Correlational versus Experimental Designs Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Correlational versus Experimental Designs Research that randomly assigns people to conditions, varies treatment in each condition, and measures effect on responses. Operational Definition: the specific procedure used to measure or manipulate a variable. Random Assignment: guaranteeing the subject are placed in experimental conditions on the basis of chance.

Biases in Research Samples Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Biases in Research Samples College students are over-represented because of convenience. In older research, males are over-represented. Ethnic minority groups are under-represented.

Experimental Variables Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Experimental Variables Independent variable: in an experiment, the factor that is systematically manipulated by the researcher. Dependent variable: in an experiment, the response to the independent variable. It is usually the measured one.

Advantages of Correlational Designs Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Advantages of Correlational Designs Enable researchers to study problems in which intervention is impossible or unethical Efficient: allow researchers to collect more information and test more relationships

Disadvantages of Correlational Designs Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Disadvantages of Correlational Designs Do not provide clear-cut evidence of cause-and-effect reverse-causality problem third-variable problem

Table 1-1 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Varies naturally Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Table 1-1 CORRELATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Varies naturally Controlled by researcher RANDOM ASSIGNMENT No Yes UNAMBIGUOUS CAUSALITY Usually not EXPLORATORY Often THEORY TESTING Usually TESTS MANY RELATIONSHIPS

Field versus Laboratory Settings Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Field versus Laboratory Settings Field research examines behavior in its natural habitat Laboratory research is conducted in an artificial situation.

Advantages of Laboratory Research Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Advantages of Laboratory Research maximizes internal validity more convenient and less costly than field research Internal validity: extent to which cause-and-effect conclusions can be drawn.

Advantages of Field Research Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Advantages of Field Research Maximizes external validity Allows researchers to study powerful situations that cannot be studied in the lab. Minimizes suspicion by participants External validity: extent to which results of a study generalize to other populations and settings.

Table 1-2 LABORATORY FIELD CONTROL OVER VARIABLES High Low Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Table 1-2 LABORATORY FIELD CONTROL OVER VARIABLES High Low RANDOM ASSIGNMENT Almost always Seldom CONVENIENCE Usually high Usually low REALISM IMPACT OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Tends to be lower Tends to be higher SUSPICION AND BIAS EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Methods of Data Collection Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Methods of Data Collection Self-Report Observational Research Archival Research Internet Research

Bias in Research Two troublesome biases in social Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Bias in Research Two troublesome biases in social psychology research are: Experimenter bias: unintentional acts by the researcher can bias results Subject bias/demand characteristics: aspects of research that make people aware that they are being studied can bias their behavior.

Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Replication Replication: No study is ever perfect, results should be replicated; meaning the study must be repeated Meta-Analysis: quantitative approach to summarizing results of many studies.

Taylor, copyright 2006, Prentice Hall Research Ethics The American Psychological Association, APA, provides rigorous ethical guidelines for research Three required ethical informed consent Debriefing Minimal risk