Chapter 4 Nonexperimental Methods The Psychologist as Detective: An Introduction to Conducting Research in Psychology Randolph A. Smith Stephen F. Davis FPO for Cover Image Chapter 4 Nonexperimental Methods © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Objectives 4.1 Express descriptive research methods 4.2 Analyze correlational studies 4.3 Examine the necessity of conducting an ex post facto study 4.4 Recognize surveys, questionnaires, tests, and inventories as research tools 4.5 Review the issues of sampling and basic research strategies while conducting a research study © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Descriptive Methods Objective 4.1 Express descriptive research methods © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.1 Descriptive Methods (1 of 3) Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data - Central repositories - Real-life sources - Potential problems - Comparisons with the experimental method Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data Point 1 – Central repositories Archives of the History of American Psychology General Social Survey (GSS) Point 2 – Real-life sources Journals Handbooks Magazines Point 3 – Potential problems Data source Selective of what was written Survival of records Point 4 – Comparisons with the experimental method Lack of control No cause-and-effect statement Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.1 Descriptive Methods (2 of 3) Naturalistic Observation - Locations - Describe behaviors - Variables and relationships - Procedures - Reactance/reactivity effect - Drawback - Benefits Naturalistic Observation Point 1 – Locations Archives of the History of American Psychology General Social Survey (GSS) Point 2 – Describe behaviors Journals Handbooks Magazines Point 3 – Variables and relationships Data source Selective of what was written Survival of records Point 4 – Procedures Lack of control No cause-and-effect statement Point 5 – Reactance/reactivity effect Point 6 – Drawback Point 7 – Benefits Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.1 Descriptive Methods (3 of 3) Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques - Selection of recording - Time sampling - Situation sampling - Qualitative - Quantitative - Interobserver reliability Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques Point 1 – Selection of recording Influences Video recording Point 2 – Time sampling Observations at different points of time Random or systematic Increase generalizability Point 3 – Situation sampling Same type of behavior at different locations Higher chance of observing different behaviors Point 4 – Qualitative Narrative record Point 5 – Quantitative Measurements Analysis Point 6 – Interobserver reliability Ensure all details are observed Disagreements on observations Trainers 85% agreement Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Correlational Studies Objective 4.2 Analyze correlational studies © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.2 Correlational Studies (1 of 2) The Nature of Correlations - Positively correlated - Negatively correlated - Zero correlation The Nature of Correlations Point 1 – Positively correlated When one variable’s scores increase, another variable’s score also increases Height and weight Point 2 – Negatively correlated An increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in another Drinking and thirst Correlations used to make predictions Point 3 – Zero correlation Two variables are unrelated Impact of a third variable Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.2 Correlational Studies (2 of 2) Correlational Research - Use of correlational research Correlational Research Point 1 – Use of correlational research Two variables can be measured, not manipulated Degree of relationship Not cause-and-effect Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Ex Post Facto Studies Objective 4.3 Examine the necessity of conducting an ex post facto study © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.3 Ex Post Facto Studies - Definition - Commonality with experimental methods Point 1 – Definition Cannot or do not manipulate variables Already varied Descriptive Point 2 – Commonality with experimental methods See relationships between variables Ex.: Marijuana use Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Objective 4.4 Recognize surveys, questionnaires, tests, and inventories as research tools © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.4 Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories (1 of 2) Surveys and Questionnaires - Descriptive - Analytic - Developing a good survey or questionnaire - Systematic sources Surveys and Questionnaires Point 1 – Descriptive Percentage with characteristics Gallup poll No attempt to identify relevant variables Point 2 – Analytic Relevant variables and their relations Existing surveys Create survey Point 3 – Developing a good survey or questionnaire Type of instrument Types of questions Write items Pilot Determine demographics Administration procedures Point 4 – Systematic sources Mail surveys Personal interviews Telephone Interviews Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.4 Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories (2 of 2) - Characteristics of good tests and inventories - Validity - Reliability - Types of tests and inventories Tests and Inventories Point 1 – Characteristics of good tests and inventories Need to scrutinize Reliability and validity Point 2 – Validity Measure what it is supposed to measure Content validity Concurrent validity Criterion validity Point 3 – Reliability Consistency Test-retest Split-half procedures Point 4 – Types of tests and inventories Achievement tests Aptitude tests Personality test Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Objective 4.5 Review the issues of sampling and basic research strategies while conducting a research study © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.5 Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies (1 of 2) - Random sampling - Representativeness Sampling Point 1 – Random sampling Population Random sampling without replacement Random sampling with replacement Point 2 – Representativeness Larger sample Stratified random sample Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4.5 Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies (2 of 2) - Single-strata approach - Cross-sectional approach - Longitudinal research project Basic Research Strategies Point 1 – Single-strata approach Single, specified segment Specific research questions Point 2 – Cross-sectional approach Comparison of two or more groups Point 3 – Longitudinal research project Same random sample over time Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.