SOCIOLOGY: A Brief Introduction Richard T. Schaefer SOCIOLOGY: A Brief Introduction Sixth Edition McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH What is the Scientific Method? Major Research Designs Ethics of Research Technology and Sociological Research Social Policy and Sociological Research: Studying Human Sexuality

What is the Scientific Method? Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

What is the Scientific Method? Figure 2.1: The Scientific Method

What is the Scientific Method? Defining the Problem State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate Operational Definition: explanation of abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept

What is the Scientific Method? Figure 2.2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States Continued…

What is the Scientific Method? Figure 2.2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States Continued…

What is the Scientific Method? Reviewing the Literature Literature: relevant scholarly studies and information that pertain to subject you are researching Refines the problem under study, clarifies possible techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminates or reduces avoidable mistakes

What is the Scientific Method? Formulating the Hypothesis Hypothesis: speculative statement about relationship between two or more factors known as variables Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions

What is the Scientific Method? Formulating the Hypothesis Types of Variables: Independent variable: variable that is hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: variable that depends on the influence of the independent variable to affect its action

What is the Scientific Method? Formulating the Hypothesis Causal Logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence Correlations: Exist when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation.

What is the Scientific Method? Figure 2.3: Causal Logic

What is the Scientific Method? Collecting and Analyzing Data Selecting the Sample Samples: selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population Random Samples: when every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected

What is the Scientific Method? Collecting and Analyzing Data Ensuring Validity and Reliability Validity: degree to which a measure truly reflects the phenomenon being studied Reliability: extent to which a measure provides consistent results

What is the Scientific Method? Developing the Conclusion Supporting the Hypothesis Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis. Controlling for Other Factors Control Variable: factor that is held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

What is the Scientific Method?

Major Research Designs Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically Surveys Studies, generally in form of an interview or questionnaire, that provide sociologists with information about how people act or think

What is the Scientific Method? Figure 2.4: Impact of a College Education on Income

Major Research Designs Surveys Interviews Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning High response rate Researcher can probe beyond questionnaire

Major Research Designs Surveys Questionnaires Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent Inexpensive Good for large samples

Major Research Designs Surveys Quantitative Research Collecting and reporting data primarily in numerical form Qualitative Research Relying on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings Often focusing on small groups and communities

Major Research Designs Observation Collecting information through direct participation and/or observation of a group Most common form of quantitative research, which collects and reports data primarily in numerical form Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation

Major Research Designs Observation Participant Observation: researcher “joins” a group for a period of time to get a sense of how it operates If research is to be successful, observer cannot allow the close association or friendships that inevitably develop to influence subjects’ behavior or conclusion of study

Major Research Designs Experiments Artificially created situations that allow researcher to manipulate variables Experimental Group: exposed to independent variable Control Group: not exposed to independent variable Hawthorne Effect: unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on subjects

Major Research Designs Use of Existing Sources Secondary Analysis: research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data Content Analysis: systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

Major Research Designs

Major Research Designs

Ethics of Research Code of Ethics Maintain objectivity and integrity in research. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity. Protect subjects from personal harm. Preserve confidentiality. Seek informed consent. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance. Disclose all sources of financial support. (ASA 1997)

Ethics of Research Confidentiality Research Funding Value Neutrality

Technology and Sociological Research Computers Allow large amounts of information to be stored and analyzed Used for quantitative and qualitative research Internet affords excellent opportunity to communicate with fellow researchers

Social Policy and Sociological Research Studying Human Sexuality The Issue Difficult topic to research because of preconceptions, myths, and beliefs people bring to the subject

Social Policy and Sociological Research Studying Human Sexuality The Setting Few reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in the United States Difficult to obtain accurate information about a sensitive subject Government funding for sexual studies is controversial

Social Policy and Sociological Research Studying Human Sexuality Sociological Insights Government major source of funding for sociological research “Value neutrality” suggests that sociological researchers should remain autonomous and not bound to any one segment of society, including the government

Social Policy and Sociological Research Studying Human Sexuality Sociological Insights Maintaining objectivity may be difficult if sociologists fear their findings will jeopardize their chances of obtaining federal support for new research projects

Social Policy and Sociological Research Studying Human Sexuality Policy Initiative In 1991, U.S. Senate forbade funding a national survey of sexual behavior by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Researchers acquired private funding to complete survey

Social Policy and Sociological Research Figure 2.5: Percent of Television Shows that Contain Sexual Content (Source: Kaiser Family Foundation 2001/02)

Social Policy and Sociological Research Figure 2.6: Views on Sex before Marriage