Presidents: popularly elected – an American invention –Only 16 countries have a popularly elected president, and 13 are in North and South America

Prime Ministers: chosen by and responsible to Parliament –Most Western European countries as well as Israel and Japan –No nation with a purely presidential political system in Europe –Voters in Europe do not directly elect Prime Minister –Prime Minister is elected by majority party

PRESIDENTS ARE OFTEN OUTSIDERS: –Is easier to win election if you can show voters you are not part of the “mess in Washington” –The majority of presidents elected from were either governors, military leaders, or vice presidents

PRESIDENTS CHOOSE CABINET MEMBERS FROM OUTSIDE OF CONGRESS: –Under the Constitution, no sitting member in Congress can hold office in the executive branch (Prime Ministers choose cabinet members from Parliament) –Presidents choose (close personal friends, campaign aides, representatives of important constituencies, and experts on various policy issues, or some combination of all three

PRESIDENTS HAVE NO GUARANTEED MAJORITY IN THE LEGISLATURE: –Prime ministers do have majority in Parliament –President’s party often does not have congressional majority – usually controlled by opposite party creating a divided government

Divided Government: one party controls the White House and a different party controls the Congress Unified Government: the White House and Congress are controlled by same party

Americans say they do not like a divided government. –They think divided government produces partisan bickering, political paralysis, and policy gridlock

It is not clear that divided government produces gridlock that is any worse than when there is a unified government It is not clear that, even if gridlock does exist, it is always, or even usually, a bad thing for the country

DOES GRIDLOCK MATTER? –Not clear if divided governments produce fewer or worse policies than a unified one –Scholars say: Conclude that divided governments do about as well as unified ones in passing important laws, conducting important investigations, and ratifying significant treaties

WHY DO DIVIDED GOVERNMENTS PRODUCE ABOUT AS MUCH IMPORTANT LEGISLATION AS UNIFIED ONES? –Unified government is something of a myth –Republicans as a party can be divided between conservatives and liberals –Constitution ensures that the president and Congress will be rivals for power and thus rivals in policy- making

The only time there is a unified government is when not just the same party but the same ideological wing of that party is in effective control of both branches

IS POLICY GRIDLOCK BAD? –American President has less ability to decide what laws get passed than does a British Prime Minister To change this the Constitution must be changed; Americans don’t want to do this Voters split-tickets: vote Democratic for President, but Republican for Congress

James Wilson: suggest a single, elected president at the Constitutional Convention in 1787

CONCERNS OF THE FOUNDERS: –Most frequent concern was over the possibility of presidential reelection. –Governor of Pennsylvania in the 1700s stated: “Make him too weak: the Legislature will usurp his powers. Make him too strong: he will usurp the Legislature.”

CONCERNS OF THE FOUNDERS: –Suspicious of human nature –President would use militia to overpower state governors –President would use bribery, intrigue, and force to win election

CONCERNS OF THE FOUNDERS: –Argued against Congress choosing the president which would make our system quasi- parliamentary

ELECTORAL COLLEGE: –Each of the states would select electors in whatever manner the states wished Electors would meet in each state capitol and vote for president and vice president If tie in the Electoral College the decision goes to the House of Representatives

THE PRESIDENT’S TERM OF OFFICE: –Franklin D. Roosevelt only president to serve more than two terms –1951 – Twenty-second Amendment limited all presidents to two-year terms

THE FIRST PRESIDENTS: –The presidency was kept modest President could not appear on coin or currency until dead

THE JACKSONIANS (Andrew Jackson): –Broad changes began to occur in American politics –Altered the relations between president and Congress and the nature of presidential leadership. Was a strong independent President – not afraid of Congress

THE JACKSONIANS (Andrew Jackson): –Jackson vetoed 12 acts of Congress –Jackson demonstrated what could be done by a popular president –Jackson believed in a strong and independent presidency – President stronger than Congress

THE REEMERGENCE OF CONGRESS: –End of Jackson’s second term, Congress quickly established its power –For great periods of time congressional – and usually senatorial – dominated the national government –Abraham Lincoln exemplified a strong president; did much without Congress –Later Congress becomes principal federal institution

President becomes equipped with great powers during a national emergency, and when popular and strong-willed the president can expand his or her powers

Since the 1930s –Presidency has been more powerful no matter who occupied the office and whether or not there is a crisis –WHY? Because government is more involved in our lives today

Most powers are found in Article II of the Constitution Two types of Powers: 1.Those he or she can exercise in their own right without formal legislative approval 2.Those that require the consent of the Senate or the Congress as a whole

POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT ALONE –Serve as commander in chief of the armed forces –Commission officers of the armed forces –Grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses (except impeachment) –Convene Congress in special sessions –Receive ambassadors –Take care that the laws be faithfully executed –Wield the “executive power” –Appoint officials to lesser offices

POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT THAT ARE SHARED WITH THE SENATE –Make Treaties –Appoint ambassadors, judges, and high officials

POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT THAT ARE SHARED WITH CONGRESS AS A WHOLE –Approve legislation

Woodrow Wilson wrote a book called: Congressional Government –Book describes the president’s powers as “usually not much above routine”

President has great military powers, and in defining the regulations and programs that will actually be put into effect PRESIDENT IS NOT FIRST BRANCH OF GOVERNMENT; CONGRESS IS

HUNDREDS OF STAFF HELICOPTER, GUARDS, LIMOUSINES PRESIDENTIAL APPOINTMENTS

THREE DEGRESS OF KINSHIP 1.The White House Office 2.The Executive Office 3.The Cabinet

1.THE WHITE HOUSE OFFICE –Closest assistants have offices in the West Wing of the White House

1.THE WHITE HOUSE OFFICE –Three ways in which the president can organize his or her staff 1.Pyramid Structure: assistants report through a hierarchy to a chief of staff, who then deals directly with the president 2.Circular Structure: cabinet secretaries and assistants report directly to president 3.Ad hoc Structure: task forces, committees, and informal groups of friends and advisers deal directly with the president

Pyramid Structure: provides for an orderly flow of information and decisions, but does so at the risk of isolating or misinforming the president

Circular method: has the virtue of giving the president a great deal of information, but at the price of confusion and conflict among cabinet secretaries and assistants

Ad hoc structure : allows great flexibility, minimizes bureaucratic inertia, and generates ideas and information from disparate channels, but risks cutting the president off from the government officials who are ultimately responsible for translating presidential decisions into policy proposals and administrative action

2.THE EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT –The Executive Office report directly to the president and perform staff services for him but are not located in the White House –President’s appointments to the Executive Office must be approved by the Senate. –Most important Executive Office is The Office of Management and Budget

3.THE CABINET: –A product of tradition and hope –The role of the cabinet is largely fiction –Constitution does not mention the cabinet –25 th Amendment implies the cabinet as consisting of “the principal offices of the executive departments –There are 14 major cabinets Page 3784; Table 14.1 lists the Cabinets Cabinet appointments rewards the president’s friends and political supporters

INDEPENDENT AGENCIES, COMMISSIONS, AND JUDGESHIPS: –President can appoint federal judges, subject to the consent of the Senate. –Judges serve for life unless removed by impeachment and conviction –What is an “Acting” appointment Say for instance I am an “Acting” Appointment – means I have not yet been confirmed by the Senate

FEDERAL AGENCIES: –Executive Agencies: Head can be removed at any time –Independent or “Quasi-Independent” Agencies: members serve for a fixed term

Most of cabinet, subcabinet, and independent-agency appointees had some prior federal experience They are in-and-outers: go between federal jobs and private sector jobs Most selected because of expertise or administrative experience

The president’s persuasive powers are aimed at three audiences 1.Fellow politicians and leaders Most important

2. Party activists and officeholders outside Washington –Partisan Grassroots: people who want the president to exemplify their principles, trumpet their slogans, appeal to their fears and hopes, and help them get reelected

3. The Public –The Bully Pulpit: president’s use of his prestige and visibility to guide or enthuse the American public The president’s formal speeches

Object is to convert personal popularity into congressional support for the president’s legislative programs, and improve chances for reelection The effect of “riding the president’s coattails” has declined in recent years The more popular a president is, the higher the proportion of his or her bills will pass Congress

Most presidents lose popular support between their inauguration and the time they leave office Honeymoon: president’s popularity seems to be highest right after election

1.VETO 2.EXECUTIVE PRIVILEGE: president’s right to withhold information that Congress may want to obtain from the president A way for the president to block congressional action and force congress to bargain with the president

VETO 1.VETO MESSAGE: a statement that the president sends to Congress accompanying the bill, within 10 days (not including Sundays) after the bill has been passed 2.Pocket Veto: president does not sign the bill within 10 days and Congress has adjourned with that time, then the bill does not become law – only before the life of a given Congress expires

A bill that is not signed or vetoed within 10 days while Congress is still in session becomes law without the presidents approval Two-thirds of each House to override a veto Only 4% of bills have been overriden

LINE-ITEM VETO: block particular part of a bill –President cannot do this