Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Chapter One The Science of Psychology PowerPoint Presentation created by Dr. Susan R. Burns Morningside College

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Making Full Use Of Your Textbook To make full use of your textbook, you need to become actively involved. Active involvement means that you need to: – Stop and think about The Psychological Detective sections immediately when you encounter them. – Refer to figures and tables when directed to do so. – Complete the Check Your Progress features when they appear. – Complete the Practice Problems that appear at the end of each of the statistics chapters.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Ways to Acquire Knowledge Tenacity – refers to the continued presentation of a particular bit of information. When we hear a statement repeated a sufficient number of times, we have a tendency to accept it as being true.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Ways to Acquire Knowledge Authority – acceptance of knowledge from an authority; taking someone’s word for it; also depends on the credibility of the person presenting the information.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Psychological Detective What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge through tenacity and authority? – You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is true. – The inability or unwillingness of tenacity and authority to change in the face of contradictory evidence.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Ways to Acquire Knowledge Experience – Refers to experiencing something firsthand or directly. – Is all experience perfectly accurate?

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Ways to Acquire Knowledge Reason and Logic – based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This process is frequently called a logical syllogism. – An example of a logical syllogism is the assumption that “beautiful people are good.”

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Ways to Acquire Knowledge Science – The key elements of the scientific approach are: Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted factors

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Ways to Acquire Knowledge (recap) Tenacity Authority Experience Reason and Logic Science

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Psychological Detective Review the methods for acquiring knowledge that we presented. How does the scientific method avoid the problems associated with tenacity, authority, experience, and reason & logic?

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Components of the Scientific Method Objectivity – A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible. – Psychologists select research participants in such a manner as to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex). – Researchers frequently make their measurements with instruments in order to be as objective as possible. We describe such measurements as being empirical because they are based on objectively quantifiable observations.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Components of the Scientific Method Confirmation of Findings – Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results. Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of research. – Psychologists use the term replication to refer to a research study that is conducted in exactly the same manner as a previous study. A replication with extension generates new information at the same time it confirms previous findings.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Components of the Scientific Method Self-correction – Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent should lead to a change in the conclusions we reach. – If experimental evidence fails to support the predicted relations between our independent and dependent variables, we change our view about how nature operates.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Components of the Scientific Method Control – Direct manipulation of factors of major interest. An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research. – Control of unwanted factors Potentially influential and undesirable factors (other than the factor of major interest) are not allowed to change.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Components of the Scientific Method (recap) Objectivity Confirmation of findings Self-correction Control

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Psychological Experiment An experiment is an attempt to determine the cause- and-effect relations that exist in nature. – Researchers are interested in determining those factors that result in or cause predictable events. – In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors: The independent variable The dependent variable Extraneous variables

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Psychological Experiment Independent Variable (IV) – The factor that is the major focus of the research and that the researcher directly manipulates. The IV is: Independent – can be directly manipulated by the investigator Variable – is able to assume two or more values (levels) The causal part of the relation we seek to establish. – Manipulation of the IV corresponds to one use of the term control.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Psychological Experiment Dependent Variable (DV) – Consists of the the recorded information or results of the experiment – Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are examining. – Changes in DV scores will depend on the manipulation of the IV

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Psychological Experiment Extraneous Variables – are those factors, other than the independent variable, that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment. – When an extraneous variable is present we have no way of knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the effect we observe. – Attention to extraneous variables represents another use of the term control.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Psychological Experiment Establishing cause-and-effect relations – Only when we manipulate an independent variable and control potential extraneous variables are we able to infer a cause-and-effect relation.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Psychological Experiment (recap) Independent variable Dependent variable Extraneous variables Establishing cause-and-effect relations

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

Establishing Cause-and-Effect What is so important about establishing a cause-and-effect relation? Although objective, repeatable observations can tell you about an interesting phenomenon, these observations cannot tell you why that phenomenon occurred. Only when we can give a cause-and-effect explanation do we begin to answer the why question.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Finding a Problem – Each research project begins as a problem or a question for which we are seeking an answer. Reviewing the Literature – Finding out what research studies already exist in an area

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Theoretical Considerations – A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the relevant variables in a particular research area. All good theories: Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data. Point the way to new research.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Hypothesis – attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory. – The research or experimental hypothesis is the predicted outcome of a research project. The research hypothesis states a testable prediction about the relations between the independent and dependent variables in your experiment.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Research Design - – A general plan for conducting your research. – Your research design specifies: How you will select your participants and assign them to groups. The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use. How you will gather your data.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Conducting the Experiment – The next step is to actually conduct the experiment (gather the data).

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions – Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed. – Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide whether manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV. – If manipulation of the IV had a statistically significant effect on the DV, and if the experiment was well-designed, we can infer that the IV manipulation was the cause of the DV effect we recorded.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory – Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory. – Was our experimental hypothesis supported? – Do our results agree with past research? – How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this research area? – If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be made in our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them? – Does lack of support for our hypothesis disconfirm the theory?

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Preparing the Research Report – A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific community. – A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA). APA format allows researchers to know exactly what to include in their papers and readers to know exactly where to look for specific experimental details, procedures, and results.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication – The two most popular ways to share results are: Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention, and/or Publish an article in a professional journal

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The Research Process Finding a New Problem – The more deeply you immerse yourself in a research area, the more questions and problems you will find to research.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

Why is the Research Methods Course Important? It assists you in other classes – The more completely you understand research methodology, the better you will be able to master the material in your other classes.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Why is the Research Methods Course Important? Conducting a research project after graduation – You might have to conduct research as a condition of future employment (even if you’re not particularly interested in research at this point in time).

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall Why is the Research Methods Course Important? Getting into Graduate School – Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in research methods or experimental psychology very positively. – Having presented or published a report is also rated very highly by graduate school admissions committees.

Smith/Davis (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

Why is the Research Methods Course Important? Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research. – If you understand the research on which a variety of claims are based, then you are in a position to make a more educated decision concerning such knowledge claims.