Gender, Migration and Health: some insights for research Jasmine Gideon Senior Lecturer, Development Studies, Birkbeck.

The feminisation of migration: –improved statistical visibility & changed perception of female-dominated migration as ‘work migration’ –the increasing participation of women in most, if not all, migration streams; –the increasing inability of men to find full-time employment in the origin countries –the growing demand for feminized jobs in destination countries

Gender bias in migration analysis –Women and men concentrated in different migratory flows based on gender-segregated labor markets –gendered socioeconomic power structures; –sociocultural definitions of appropriate roles

Migration and care Migration and care inextricably linked Gendered roles and responsibilities shape decision to migrate women more likely to have to balance domestic responsibilities alongside labour force participation Limits women’s occupational choices and time autonomy

Gender and time use in China 2008 Time Use study in China –Women spend more time on unpaid care work compared to men & most pronounced in daily routine tasks such as cooking, cleaning, shopping and taking care of children. –Housework burden accounts for 27 to 28 percent of the gender earnings gap in China (Qi and Dong, 2013) Care burden can limit possibility of migration (distance travelled, duration of migration etc) Almost 59 million children under 18 years are left behind, living with only one parent (mostly mothers)

Access to rights and entitlements Gender differences in migrants’ rights and entitlements closely linked to mode of entry, nature of migration, types of employment Women tend to be located in more vulnerable forms of employment and therefore less access to rights and entitlements esp. around social protection

Mixed evidence on gendered nature of occupational health risks in China More male workers than female fill in hospital visit forms - gendered nature of occupational health legislation? –Gendered nature of occupational health risks? Growing concerns around sexual harassment esp. in urban context

Sex work and health risks Female migrants more likely to be employed in sex work than male migrants SRH risks greater for rural migrants in urban contexts Rural women most likely to be engaged in sex work on the street and have least knowledge around SRH

Health knowledge and access to services in urban settings Gendered cultural norms can reinforce lack of access to services –E.g. Assumptions around ‘appropriate’ behaviour of young women can mean they find it difficult to use SRH services Research from Anhui and Sichuan found that female migrant’s knowledge of reproductive health issues positively related to period of time in urban areas Migrants in urban areas more likely to have gynaecological health checks than women in rural areas But some women can lack support networks in urban settings and too shy/ embarrassed to seek care Male migrants in urban areas more likely to access media so have better access to information (men who watch TV more likely to buy condoms than other men or women)

Links between gendered responsibilities and health risks Northern China - urban migrants often live in poor quality housing and evidence that use of leaky cookers/ heating poses health risk – women more likely to be responsible for cooking Mental health impact of combining paid/ unpaid work – esp problematic if work is monotonous and women more negatively affected

Final reflections Importance of recognising ways in which gendered roles and responsibilities shape access to and benefits of processes of development such as migration Impact of gendered norms – e.g. can shape access to services and exacerbate other gendered barriers Need to uncover implicit policy assumptions which frequently have gendered impacts