1 Pedagogical Grammar 7 Nick Ellis on Frequency Effects

2 In general… We build up our knowledge of language through being aware of how often ‘bits’ of language go with other ‘bits: –Sounds with other sounds –Letters with other letters in spelling –Words with other words (collocations, grammar) –Phrases with other phrases This learning occurs chiefly through frequency of encounters with the target items.

3 Exemplars = samples of language in context

4 Bigram frequency ii tc qp ot ea ae st ts Sort these bigrams into ‘frequent in English’ ‘infrequent in English’ ‘never (or almost never) occur in English’

5 Spelling How would you pronounce the following words? –dook (/u:/ or / ʊ/) –bool (/u:/ or / ʊ/) –sind (/ I / or /a I /) –bove (/əʊ/ or /ʌ/) –falm (/fælm/ or /fɑ:m/)

6 Morphosyntax Conflict between form and function How long does it take you to say whether the following are masculine or feminine?

7 1.איש 2.שנה 3.תרנגולת 4.קשת 5.ירח 6.שמש 7.כוס 8.כף 9.כפית 10.נעל 11.עמית 12.לילה

8 Comprehension The plane The plane left The plane left for The plane left for the East Coast. The plane left for refuelling took off later. The note The note left The note left for The note left for the reporter was missing

9 The spy saw the cop with the binoculars

10 Adults have vast knowledge of ways lexis behaves grammatically Where ….? She was responsible … You can’t burn the candle … ‘Freeze!’ ‘Objection ….ed!’ dead tired but not dead exhausted take a decision or make a decision but not receive a decision

11 Where does the humor come from? Drunk Gets Nine Months in Violin Case Iraqi Head Seeks Arms Lung Cancer in Women Mushrooms Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim Enraged Cow Injures Farmer with Ax Juvenile Court to Try Shooting Defendant Stolen Painting Found by Tree Two Sisters Reunited after 18 Years in Checkout Counter Red Tape Holds Up New Bridge Deer Kill 17,000 Kids Make Nutritious Snacks

12 Implications for language learning ‘The evidence reviewed here suggests that the knowledge underlying fluent use of language is not grammar in the sense of abstract rules or structures but a huge collection of memories of previously experienced utterances’

13 …for language learners to be accurate and fluent in their generalizations they need to have processed sufficient exemplars that their accidental and finite experience is truly representative of the total population of language of the speech community in terms of its overall content, the relative frequencies of that content and the mappings of form to functional interpretation.

14 A repertoire of ‘constructions’ ‘From formulas: ‘Call it a day’, good morning, more or less (= fixed chunks) To low-scope patterns (= variable chunks) What’s… like?, What do you …? To constructions….. single words (V + ed)..pairs of words (adj + noun)

15 Complex constructions A causes B to receive C –Bill gave Jenny a book –She threw me a ball –They paid him the money…

16 Complex constructions B A (caused to move) B (in a certain direction) John drove the car into the wall.

17 Can you summarize in your own words what Ellis is saying about foreign language learning – or, indeed, language learning in general? In what ways is this different from other theories you have come across?

18 Yanren Ding (2007)Text memorization and imitation: The practices of successful Chinese learners of English System 35(2), Speakers who won debating prizes said that learning texts by heart helped them.

19 Implications Valuable insights: –the importance of sheer amount, frequency –the idea of ‘informed guessing’ based on exemplars we are familiar with, not rules as such –the blurring of the distinction between lexis and grammar: ‘constructions’

20 Rules as helping ‘noticing’ and adding experience of exemplars, rather than as systematic theories to be implemented I need to provide lots of exposure and experience of language: hence practice Problem of time! So we need to manipulate exposures to make sure that new items are re-encountered