1 AS Science 1.5 Acids and Bases By Dr H W Winter © with parts contributed by Andrew Keen Pukekohe High School NZ

2 Chapter 1 Key Concepts Specific Learning Outcomes Learning Experiences Atomic structure Atomic mass Atomic number Isotopes Relating the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom or a monatomic ion to the atomic number, mass number and charge. Define element, metal & non-metal Learn the names and symbols of the first 20 elements plus: Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Br, Ag, Ti, Sn, I, Ba & Pb

3 Remember from last year….? An Atom is the smallest building block of matter. Atoms are so small that we cannot see them, not even with the best microscopes in the world. Many atoms together can be seen. All known matter is made up of atoms. A teaspoon full of sulfur (5g) contains about or atoms. There are even smaller types of particles that make up the atoms.

4 Sub-atomic Particles = tiny particles that make up atoms NameMass in mass units Charge of particle Where found symbol proton 1 +nucleusp+p+ electron electron shells e-e- neutron 1 0nucleusn0n0

5 The Carbon Atom The nucleus is made up by 6 protons 6 neutrons and 2 in the 1 st shell 4 in the 2 nd shell 6 electrons are found in the electron shells: Most of the atom is empty space The nucleus is the heaviest part of the atom

6 More stuff you should remember… There are over 100 different types of atoms, each type is called a chemical element. These chemical elements are listed in a special table called the “Periodic Table”.

7 Principles of Order The periodic table lists all the chemical elements in order of their number of protons (or the “atomic number”) from the top left to the bottom right. H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium

8 The lines in the Periodic Table are called “Periods”; there are 7 periods in the Periodic Table. The columns in the Periodic Table are called “Groups”; there are 18 groups in the Periodic Table. Some groups have special names.

9 H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Potassium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium Periods Groups Alkali Metals Noble Gases Halogens Alkali Earth Metals Group Numbers The Periodic table

10 H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium You should remember the names and symbols of 34 elements:

11 H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium You should remember the names and symbols of 34 elements: The first 20 on the Periodic Table

12 You should remember the names and symbols of 34 elements: The fist 20 on the Periodic Table plus 14 extra ones: H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium

13 Study Tips Make yourself some flash-cards: cut/rip a piece of A4 paper into 8 equal pieces and write on one side of each a symbol of an element and on the other side its name. Or Make yourself some a ‘never-ending book’: fold, fold, fold, open up to A-frame, rip down the middle and put your hand through the rip, fold to book; symbol on top of page, name on bottom of next page. – Your teacher will show you! Make yourself a mnemonic aid like: Harry he likes beer by cups full not over frothy. Nelly’s naughty MG always sits parked so cleverly around K-Road car park.

14 The first 20 elements of the Periodic Table NoSymbolNameHelp 1HHydrogenHarry 2HeHeliumHe 3LiLithiumLikes 4BeBerylliumBeer 5BBoronBy 6CCarbonCupsfull 7NNitrogenNot 8OOxygenOver 9FFluorineFrothy 10NeNeonNelly’s NoSymbolNameHelp 11NaSodiumNaughty 12MgMagnesiumMG 13AlAluminiumAlways 14SiSiliconSits 15PPhosphorusParked 16SSulfurSo 17ClChlorineCleverly 18ArArgonAround 19KPotassiumK-Road 20CaCalciumCar park

15 Chapter 2 Key Concepts Specific Learning Outcomes Learning Experiences Electron configurations Valence shells Isotopes Stating the electron arrangement of atoms or monatomic ions of the first 20 elements Draw diagrams to show the relative locations of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom (1 st 20). Define Atomic Mass and Mass Number. Calculate number of protons neutrons and electrons from given A and Z data. Draw diagrams to show the electrons arrangement in the ions (1 st 20).

16 H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium Mass Number (A) Atomic Number (Z) On the Periodic Table there are usually 2 numbers with each symbol. The smaller one is the “Atomic Number” (Z) The bigger number is the “Mass Number” (A)

17 Atomic number = number of protons in nucleus Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic number + number of neutrons On the Periodic Table there are usually 2 numbers with each symbol. The smaller one is the “Atomic Number” (Z) The bigger number is the “Mass Number” (A) Element Symbol Mn Manganese Mass Number Atomic Number

18 How to find the number of Neutrons Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons (A) = (Z) + number of neutrons (A) - (Z) = number of neutrons Mass number take away atomic number = number of neutrons How many neutrons do the following atoms have? He 2 4 H 1 1 C 6 12 Fe

19 Counting Electrons In an atom the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. So, if you are asked for the number of electrons in an atom, you look at the number of protons or the atomic number. In an ion the number of electrons is different from the number of protons.

20 SymbolName Atomic number Mass number No of protons No of neutrons No of electrons Sodium K 3919 Bromine Silicon 14 S 1632 Argon 4018 Complete the Table below using your Periodic Table

21 SymbolName Atomic number Mass number No of protons No of neutrons No of electrons NaSodium KPotassium BrBromine SiSilicon SSulfur ArArgon Answers

22 All the elements in one period have the same number of electron shells. H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium 1 Shell2 Shells3 Shells4 Shells

23 H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium All the elements in one group have the same number of electrons in their outer-most shell. 2 electrons in outer shell1 electron in outer shell 3 electrons in outer shell4 electrons in outer shell5 electrons in outer shell6 electrons in outer shell 7 electrons in outer shellCompletely full outer shell

24 The first electron shell can take a maximum of 2 electrons, the second shell can take maximum of 8 and the third shell can take 8 as well The outer-most shell of an atom is called the “Valence Shell”. The valence shell does all the bonding to other atoms.

25 Electron Configurations 6 protons 6 neutrons and The nucleus is made up by 2 in the 1 st shell 4 in the 2 nd shell 6 electrons are found in the electron shells: What is the electron configuration of carbon? We say Carbon has the electron configuration C (2,4)

26 You could also draw it like this: 6 p + 6 n 0 C (2,4) And what would be the electron configuration of this one? 17p + 18 n 0 Cl (2,8,7)

27 Try these: 4 p + 5 n 0 2 p + 2 n 0 4 p + 5 n 0 20 p + 20 n 0 Ca (2,8,8,2)Be (2,2)He (2)

28 Isotopes Isotopes of an element are atoms that have the same number of protons (and electrons), but they have a different number of neutrons. 17p + 18 n 0 17p + 20 n 0 The natural occurrence of these are 75%and 25%

29 Isotopes What are the names of these atoms? How many protons, neutrons and electrons have they got? What are their mass numbers? 17p + 18 n 0 17p + 20 n 0 This is chlorine ClAnd this is chlorine Cl These two atoms are said to be isotopes of each other. Both exist naturally.

30 Isotopes There are also so called “radio-active isotopes”. They have instable nuclei that can pop to produce other elements and/or radiation. Isotopes can also be made artificially in nuclear reactions with sub-atomic particles.

31 Facts about the Periodic Table Metals are on the left. Non-metals are on the right. Semi-metals behave a little like metals as well as non-metals. You find them in-between metals and non-metals along the zigzag line. All the elements in the 18 th group, the “Noble Gases” or “Inert Gases”, have full outer shells and do not react with other elements.

32 H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Potassium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium Metals Non-metals Semi-metals (Metalloids) The Periodic table

33 Chapter 3 Key Concepts Specific Learning Outcomes Learning Experiences Charge Ions Monatomic ions Polyatomic ions Groups 1, 2, 16, 17 Understand how ions are produced and how to produce ionic formulae. Relating the charge of monatomic ions to the position of the element in the periodic table and hence to chemical properties - restricted to groups 1, 2, 16 and 17. Determine the number of valence electrons in atoms. Describe ion formation. Write symbols for the ions.

34 “Bonds” are connections between atoms. Bonds are made by the electrons in the outer- most electron shells, the valence shells. Atoms want to have a full outer electron shell. This makes them like the “Noble Gases”: stable and un-reactive. Atoms can achieve this state by: a) losing electrons or b) by gaining electrons (stealing) or c) by sharing electrons with each other. Chemical Bonds

35 Compounds When different types of atoms join together (forming a ‘bond’) they form compounds. E.g. sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride (element) + (element)  (compound)

36 Molecules When atoms (they may be the same kind) share electrons, molecules are formed. E.g. H 2 or hydrogen molecule H 2 O or Water molecule

37 Ionic Bonding 3 p + 4 n 0 17p + 18n 0 Cl(2,8,7) Li(2,1) Li could get a full outer shell by losing one electron or by stealing 7 electrons. What is easier? Cl could get a full outer shell by losing 7 electrons or by stealing one electron. What is easier?

38 Ionic Bonding 3 p + 4 n 0 17p + 18n 0 Li and Cl atoms make a perfect pair! While Li wants to lose an electron, the Cl wants to steal an electron from another atom. Li has now 3 protons (+) and only 2 electrons (-)! It changed from a neutral Li atom to a positively charged Li + “Ion”. Cl has now 17 protons (+) and 18 electrons (-)! It changed from a neutral Cl atom to a positively charged Cl - “Ion”.

39 Ionic Bonding 3 p + 4 n 0 17p + 18n 0 The lithium ion has now the electron configuration Li + (2) Two atoms of elements have reacted with each other. Lithium metal and chlorine gas changed into lithium chloride, a white crystalline powder. The chloride ion has the electron configuration Cl - (2,8,8)

40 Definitions Charges are electric unbalances caused by too few or too many electrons in a particle. If there are more electrons than protons, the particle has a negative charge; if there are more protons than electrons, the particle has a positive charge. Ionic bonds are made by atoms gaining electrons from other atoms that lose electrons. Atoms change into ions. Ionic compounds are substances that have 2 or more types of atoms in them that have been converted to ions by ionic bonding.

41 Definitions Monoatomic ions have only one charged atom in them. Polyatomic ions have 2 or more atoms sharing the same charge. Cl - or chloride ion Na + or sodium ion SO 4 2- or sulfate ion OH - or hydroxide ion

42 Definitions Mixtures are materials that have several types of particles blended together Pure substances are containing only one type of compound or atoms.

43 General Ion Rules All metals (left side of the periodic table) lose electrons in order get a full outer shell and therefore form positive ions. All non-metals (right side of the periodic table) gain electrons in order get a full outer shell and therefore form negative ions.

44 Ionic Lattices Ions arrange themselves in so- called ionic lattices, a 3D arrangement of regularly occurring positive and negative ions. They form ionic crystals.

45 H 1 1 Hydrogen Li 3 7 Lithium Na Sodium K Potassium Rb Rubidium Cs Caesium Fr Francium Be 4 9 Beryllium Mg Magnesium Ca Calcium Sr Strontium Ba Barium Ra Radium Sc Scandium Y Yttrium La Lanthanum Ac Actinium Ti Titanium Zr Zirconium Hf Hafnium 104 V Vanadium Nb Niobium Ta Tantalum 105 Cr Chromium Mo Molybdenum W Tungsten 106 Mn Manganese Tc Technetium Re Rhenium 107 Fe Iron Ru Ruthenium Os Osmium 108 Co Cobalt Rh Rhodium Ir Iridium 109 Ni Nickel Pd Palladium Pt Platinum 110 Cu Copper Ag Silver Au Gold 111 Zn Zinc Cd Cadmium Hg Mercury 112 B 5 11 Boron Al Aluminium Ga Gallium In Indium Tl Thallium 113 C 6 12 Carbon Si Silicon Ge Germanium Sn Tin Pb Lead 114 N 7 14 Nitrogen P Phosphorus As Arsenic Sb Antimony Bi Bismuth 115 O 8 16 Oxygen S Sulfur Se Selenium Te Tellurium Po Polonium 116 F 9 19 Fluorine Cl Chlorine Br Bromine I Iodine At Astatine 117 Ne Neon Ar Argon Kr Krypton Xe Xenon Rn Radon 118 He 2 4 Helium Ce Cerium Pr Praseodymium Nd Neodymium Pm Promethium Sm Samarium Eu Europium Gd Gadolinium Tb Terbium Dy Dysprosium Ho Holmium Er Erbium Tm Thulium Yb Ytterbium Lu Lutetium Th Thorium Pa Protactinium U Uranium Np Neptunium Pu Plutonium Am Americium Cm Curium Bk Berkelium Cf Californium Es Einsteinium Fm Fermium Md Mendelevium No Nobelium Lr Lawrencium What type of ions would you expect the members of the following groups to produce? 2 electrons in outer shell1 electron in outer shell 6 electrons in outer shell 7 electrons in outer shellCompletely full outer shell

46 Write down what type of particle/s you think is/are shown in the following diagrams. Use the words: atom, molecule, particle, ion, compound, negatively/positively charged, pure substance, repulsed, attracted, lattice, element, mixture of… δ-δ- δ+δ

Write down what type of particle/s you think is/are shown in the following diagrams. Use the words: atom, molecule, particle, ion, compound, negatively/positively charged, pure substance, repulsed, attracted, lattice, element, mixture of…

Write down what type of particle/s you think is/are shown in the following diagrams. Use the words: atom, molecule, particle, ion, compound, negatively/positively charged, pure substance, repulsed, attracted, lattice, element, mixture of…

49 Chemical Formulas In order to speed up communication chemists have devised a short-hand language called chemical formulas and equations. You should be able to find the formulas for ionic compounds by the so-called “Swap and Drop method”. You will have a “table of ions” provided in your exams.

50 Table of Ions Valency123 Positive Ions H+H+ Ca 2+ Al 3+ K+K+ Mg 2+ Fe 3+ Li + Cu 2+ Na + Pb 2+ NH 4 + Fe 2+ Ag + Ba 2+ Zn 2+ Negative Ions Br - CO 3 2- Cl - O 2- F-F- SO 4 2- HCO 3 - S 2- I-I- NO 3 - OH -

51 Table of Ions Valency123 Positive Ions H + hydrogen Ca 2+ calcium Al 3+ aluminium K + potassium Mg 2+ magnesium Fe 3+ iron III Li + lithium Cu 2+ copper Na + sodium Pb 2+ lead NH 4 + ammonium Fe 2+ iron II Ag + silverBa 2+ barium Zn 2+ zinc Negative Ions Br - bromide CO 3 2- carbonate Cl - chloride O 2- oxide F - fluoride SO 4 2- sulfate HCO 3 - hydrogencarbonate S 2- sulfide I - iodide NO 3 - nitrate OH - hydroxide

52 1.Use the ion table provided! 2.Write the symbols & charges under the name 3.Put brackets around formulas with more than 1 capital letter (these are poly-atomic ions) 4.Ignore + & -, swap & drop the numbers 5.Simplify E.g.copper oxide Cu 2+ O & 2. Cu 2 O 2 3. & 4. CuO5. The Swap and Drop Method

53 1.Use the ion table provided! 2.Write the symbols & charges under the name 3.Put brackets around formulas with more than 1 capital letter (these are poly-atomic ions) 4.Ignore + & -, swap & drop the numbers 5.Simplify E.g. Calcium hydroxide Ca 2+ OH - 1. & 2. Ca (OH) 2 3. & 4. Ca(OH) 2 5. The Swap and Drop Method

54 Writing Formulae for Ionic Compounds The metal ion is written first, then the non-metal. Ionic compounds have no overall charge, so the positive and negative charges must cancel. The charges are not shown on the completed formula. Subscript numbers (little numbers to the right of the letter) show how many of each ion is needed to achieve zero charge overall. Ions with more than one type of atom in them (= “polyatomic ions”) are enclosed in BRACKETS when two or more of these ions are needed to achieve zero overall charge.

55 Now it’s your turn: Find the formulas for the following: Copper sulfate Lithium oxide Zinc carbonate Lead hydrogen carbonate Potassium sulfate Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium oxide Iron III sulfate CuSO 4 Li 2 O ZnCO 3 Pb(HCO 3 ) 2 K 2 SO 4 Al(OH) 3 Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 Positive ions are written first

56 Now it’s your turn: Find the names for the following formulas: CaSO 4 LiOH PbCO 3 Zn(HCO 3 ) 2 H 2 SO 4 Fe(OH) 3 Fe 2 O 3 Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 Calcium sulfate Lithium hydroxide Lead carbonate Zinc hydrogen carbonate Sulfuric acid Iron III hydroxide Iron III oxide Aluminium sulfate Remember to put the name of the positive ion at the beginning of the name

57 Chemical Equations There are different types of chemical equations: Word equations Symbol equations The word equations only tell you what reacts with what and what the products are called; it does not show any numbers and does not need to get “balanced”. The symbol equations show not only the symbols (formulae) of the elements or compounds involved but also how many of the particles are involved. In both types of equations the starting chemicals (reactants) are on the left of an arrow (not an equal-sign!) and the materials that are produced (products) are on the right hand side. E.g. Reactants  Products Note: never mix word equations with symbol equations

58 Balancing Equations Start with the word equation after you have identified the reactants and the products. E.g. Iron III chloride + sodium hydroxide  iron III hydroxide + sodium chloride Determine the formulae of both the reactants and the products using the swap and drop method. (it is very important to get the formulae right!!) Write these below the word equation. E.g. FeCl 3 + NaOH  Fe(OH) 3 + NaCl Now count the elements that are not hydrogen or oxygen on either side of the arrow and put numbers in front of them such that they are the same number on the left and right. Then do the same to the oxygen and hydrogen atoms. FeCl 3 + 3NaOH  Fe(OH) 3 + 3NaCl Check that the numbers of each kind of atom are the same of either side Never change the formulae or the sub-scripts!!!!

59 Please balance the following equations copper sulfate + sodium carbonate  copper carbonate + sodium sulfate CuSO 4 + Na 2 CO 3  CuCO 3 + Na 2 SO 4 zinc chloride + sodium hydrogen carbonate  zinc hydrogen carbonate + sodium chloride ZnCl NaHCO 3  Zn(HCO 3 ) NaCl

60 Please balance the following equations zinc + hydrochloric acid  zinc chloride + hydrogen gas Zn + 2 HCl  ZnCl 2 + H 2 aluminium + oxygen  aluminium oxide 4 Al + 3 O 2  2 Al 2 O 3

61 Please balance the following equations lead hydrogen carbonate + sulfuric acid  lead sulfate + carbon dioxide + water Pb(HCO 3 ) 2 + H 2 SO 4  PbSO 4 +2 CO H 2 O sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide  potassium sulfate + water H 2 SO KOH  K 2 SO 4 + H 2 O

62 Precipitates A precipitate is an insoluble product made by a chemical reaction using soluble reactants. Precipitates can be seen sinking to the bottom of the test-tube or floating as a jelly in the solution after they were formed. Most are white some are coloured. FeSO 4(aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Fe(OH) 2 (s) + Na 2 SO 4 (aq) Green precipitate

63 Common Lab Gasses OxygenO 2 Carbon DioxideCO 2 HydrogenH 2

64 Chemicals You Need To Know HClHydrochloric Acid H 2 SO 4 Sulfuric Acid HNO 3 Nitric Acid NaOHSodium Hydroxide NaHCO 3 Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate / Sodium Bicarbonate H 2 OWater CO 2 Carbon Dioxide N 2 Nitrogen H 2 Hydrogen O 2 Oxygen CaCO 3 Calcium Carbonate Ca(OH) 2 Calcium Hydroxide / Limewater First 20 elements and their ions plus 14 more elements

65 Ionic Bonding - Example NaNa Na + Sodium AtomChlorine Atom Cl - Sodium IonChloride Ion Sodium Chloride Cl

66 Acids Acids need water to be acids; in water the acids will split up (dissociate) into ions. The ions will be Hydrogen ions, and the salt ion (negative ion). Acids are defined as substances containing H + ions. Acids have a negative ion part (the acid – rest) that is balanced by hydrogen ions (the acid ions) to form “zero charge”. E.g. H 2 SO 4  2H + + SO 4 2-

67 Acids React with bases to form salts and water. Turns blue litmus red. Red litmus stays red. Turns universal indicator yellow-red depending on concentration. Have pH’s of 0 < 7 (not including 7). Taste sour in nature.

68 Types Of Acids Acids you must know and the salts they make: HNO 3 nitric acidnitrates H 2 SO 4 sulfuric acidsulfates HClhydrochloric acidchlorides HNO 3 + nH 2 O  H + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq) Strong acids fully dissolve in water

69 Acids - Example 1 Example: Hydrochloric Acid – from Hydrogen Chloride gas HCl = H + /Cl - HCl (g) + n H 2 O  H + (aq) + Cl - (aq) For the advanced people... HCl (g) + nH 2 O (l)  H 3 O + (aq) + Cl - (aq) Acid Hydrogen ion Causes Acidity Negative/salt ion Acid Negative/salt ion Hydrogen /Hydronium ion Real acid ion Water

70 Acids - Example 2 Example: Sulfuric Acid – Hydrogen Sulfate H 2 SO 4 = 2H + /SO 4 2- H 2 SO 4(l) + n H 2 O (l)  2H + (aq) + SO 4 2- (aq) For the advanced people... H 2 SO 4(l) + nH 2 O (l)  2H 3 O + (aq) + SO 4 2- (aq) Acid Hydrogen Ion Causes Acidity Negative/Salt Ion Acid Negative/Salt Ion Hydrogen /Hydronium Ion Real Acid Ion Water

71 Bases Are mostly solids at room temperature. Defined as containing OH - ions. Bases have the negative hydroxide ion part and are balanced with positive metal ions to form a lattice with zero charge. When dissolved in water, the bases will split up (dissociate) into their ions. The ions will be Hydroxide ion(s), and the metal ion(s) (positive ion).

72 Bases React with acids to form salts and water. Turns red litmus blue. Blue litmus stays blue. Turns universal indicator blue-violet depending on concentration. Have pH’s of 7 < 14 (not including 7). Have a soapy feel in nature. Only act as bases when dissolved in water.

73 Types Of Bases Strong Bases - Examples: NaOHsodium hydroxide KOHpotassium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 calcium hydroxide Weak Bases - Examples: NH 3 ammonia ( forms the ammonium ion NH 4 + ) KOH (s)  K + (aq) + OH - (aq) “Alkalies” dissolve in water

74 Bases - Example 1 Example: Sodium Hydroxide – Caustic Soda NaOH = Na + /OH - NaOH (s)  Na + (aq) + OH - (aq) Base Metal Ion Hydroxide Ion Causes Alkalinity

75 Bases - Example 2 - Special Case Example: Ammonia – Ammonium Hydroxide NH 3 = Does not split But when dissolved into water... NH 3 (g) + H 2 O (l) ↔ NH 4 + (aq) + OH - (aq) Neutral Base Ammonium ion Hydroxide ion, Causes Alkalinity Water

76 Types of Base Reactions Metal + Water  Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas Acid + Base  Metal Salt + Water (neutralisation reaction)

77 Types of Acid Reactions Acid + Metal  Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas Acid + Base  Metal Salt + Water Acid + Carbonate  Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide Acid + Bicarbonate  Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide (‘Bicarbonate’ can also be named as ‘Hydrogen Carbonate’)

78 Salt Formation Salts are any solid compound formed by an acid (or base). Some salts are readily soluble in water, so they are not visible in water. To make soluble salts solid. You have to boil/evaporate the water/solvent out slowly. It will leave the solid salt at the bottom. Salts are always ionic compounds. Salts frequently have a neutral pH.

79 Salt Formation Salts can be made from the following general equations: Metal + Acid  Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas Acid + Base  Metal Salt + Water Acid + Carbonate  Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide Acid + Bicarbonate  Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

80 Types of Salts Salt formed from Hydrochloric Acid... –Makes Chlorides –Contain Cl - Salt formed from Sulfuric Acid... –Makes Sulfates –Contain SO 4 2- Salt formed from Nitric Acid... –Makes Nitrates –Contain NO 3 -

81 Neutralisation Neutralisation is adding an acid to a base, or base to an acid. This will make the solution get closer to being neutral with a pH of 7. When the right amounts of each are added to each other, the solution will have a pH of 7. This reaction takes the form of the general equation: Acid + Base  Metal Salt + Water

82 Neutralisation Example 1: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l) There are no H + or OH - ions formed in the reaction, therefore it is neutral. Example 2: H 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq)  K 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2H 2 O (l) There are no H + or OH - ions formed in the reaction, therefore it is neutral.

83 Carbon Dioxide Production In some acid-base reactions gasses are given off as the reaction proceeds. Carbon dioxide is a common gas given off in acid-base reactions. This reaction takes the form of the general equation(s): Acid + Metal Carbonate  Metal Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water or Acid + Metal Bicarbonate  Metal Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

84 Carbon Dioxide Production Example 1: Hydrochloric Acid + Calcium Carbonate  Calcium Chloride + Carbon dioxide + Water 2HCl (aq) + CaCO 3 (s)  CaCl 2 (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l) Example 2: Sulfuric Acid + Sodium Bicarbonate  Sodium Sulfate + Carbon dioxide + Water Or Sulfuric Acid + Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate  Sodium Sulfate + Carbon dioxide + Water H 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2NaHCO 3 (aq)  Na 2 SO 4 (aq) + 2CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O (l)

85 Hydrogen Production In some acid-base reactions gasses are given off as the reaction proceeds. Hydrogen is the other of the main gasses given off in acid-base reactions. This reaction takes the form of the general equation(s): Metal + Acid  Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas Metal + Water  Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas Metal + Steam  Metal Oxide + Hydrogen Gas

86 Hydrogen Production Example 1: Hydrochloric Acid + Magnesium  Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen gas 2HCl (aq) + Mg (s)  MgCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g) Example 2: Sodium + Water  Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas 2Na (s) + 2H 2 O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + H 2 (g)

87 pH pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is. pH is based on the concentration of Hydrogen ions in solution. Acidic solutions have a low pH Basic solutions have a high pH Solids and gases can not have their pH’s taken as they are not in solution.

88 pH - pH Paper / Litmus There are two types red and blue. Red paper: –If it turns blue, the solution is basic. –If it stays red, the solution is neutral or acidic. Blue paper: –If it turns red, the solution is acidic. –If it stays blue, the solution is neutral or basic.

89 pH - pH Paper / Litmus Litmus paper will only work when testing solutions or liquids. If testing solids or gases: –Wet the litmus paper first. –Then place the litmus paper onto the solid or into the gas. This will allow the sample to dissolve into the water on the litmus paper, and form a solution.

90 pH - Universal Indicator (UI) Universal Indicator is naturally green in colour. Strong acids turn UI red/orange. Weak acids turn UI orange/yellow. Neutral solutions leave UI green. Weak bases turn UI blue. Strong bases turn UI blue/violet 0714

91 pH - Universal Indicator (UI)

92 Kinetic Theory Tries to explain how atoms and molecules react with each other. Describes the conditions for a successful reaction. Explains the variation in reaction rates under changed conditions.

93 Kinetic Theory Successful Reactions For a reaction to be successful. Three criteria must be met, these are: –Sufficient kinetic energy –They must collide with one another –They must collide at the correct orientation If any one of these conditions is not met, the reaction will not occur.

94 Successful Reaction Successf ul Collision Sufficient Kinetic Energy (speed) They collide They collide at the correct orientation

95 Un-successful Reaction Not enough kinetic energy to break the bonds in the particles, so therefore NO REACTION

96 Un-successful Reaction No collision between the particles, so therefore... NO REACTION

97 Un-successful Reaction The particles do no collide with the correct orientation, so therefore NO REACTION

98 Kinetic Theory Reaction Rates Kinetic theory can describe/explain why under different conditions the reaction rates may change. The reaction rate is effected by four variables: –Heat/Temperature –Surface Area –Concentration –Catalyst

99 Reaction Rates - Heat The temperature at which the reaction is carried out at, effects the reaction rate. It directly effects the kinetic energy of the reactive particles. At a high temperature, the particles have more kinetic energy. Therefore making the reaction faster At a low temperature, the particles have less kinetic energy. Therefore making the reaction slower.

100 Heat - Example Answer When heat is applied to a reaction the reaction rate changes. This is because the heat energy applied is giving the reacting particles more kinetic energy. This in turn, increases the number of successful collisions per unit of time. Therefore increases the reaction rate. If heat was removed from a reaction, the opposite of the above would occur. The reactive particles would have less kinetic energy, and be travelling more slowly. There will be less successful collisions per unit of time. Therefore decreasing the reaction rate.

101 Reaction Rates - Surface Area The surface area of a solid reactant in the reaction, effects the reaction rate. It directly effects the chance of collisions with the reactive particles. With a high surface area, the particles have a greater chance of colliding successfully, making the reaction faster. With a low surface area, the particles have a lesser chance of colliding successfully, making the reaction slower.

102 Surface Area - Example Answer When a solid reactant has a high surface area, the reaction rate changes. This is because there are more available reactive solid particles, giving a higher chance of more successful collisions per unit of time. Therefore increasing the reaction rate. If the solid reactant has a low surface area, the opposite of the above applies. There will be less exposure to reactive solid particles. Thus, lessening the number of successful collisions per unit of time. Therefore decreasing the reaction rate.

103 Reaction Rates - Concentration The concentration of a liquid or aqueous reactant in the reaction, effects the reaction rate. It directly effects the chance of collisions with the reactive particles. With a high concentration, there are more reacting particles, making the reaction faster. With a low concentration, there are less reacting particles, making the reaction slower.

104 Concentration - Example Answer When a liquid or aqueous reactant has a high concentration, the reaction rate changes. This is because there are more reactive particles present in the reaction. This in turn increases the number of successful collision per unit of time. Therefore increases the reaction rate. If the liquid or aqueous reactant has a high concentration, the opposite of the above applies. There will be less reactive particles in the reaction. Thus decreasing the number of successful collisions per unit of time. Therefore decreasing the reaction rate.

105 Reaction Rates - Catalyst The addition of a catalyst in the reaction, effects the reaction rate. It directly effects the orientation of collisions with the reactive molecules. With a catalyst, there are more correct orientation collisions, making the reaction faster. Without a catalyst, there are less correct orientation collisions, making the reaction slower.

106 Catalyst - Example Answer The use of a catalyst in a reaction, greatly effects the reaction rate. The catalyst provides a surface that allows the reactive particles to collide with each other in the correct orientation. Thus, increasing the number of successful collisions per unit of time. Therefore greatly increasing the reaction rate. If a catalyst was not used in a reaction, the opposite of the above will apply. There will less particles colliding with the correct orientation. Thus, lowering the number of successful collisions per unit of time. Therefore deceasing the reaction rate. The catalyst itself is un-reactive and does not get used up in the reaction.