America Goes to War The earliest known use of the term First World War appeared during the war. German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel wrote shortly after the start of the war: “There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War'... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word.” —Indianapolis Star, 20 September 1914

Main Ideas World War I begins in 1914 The United States’ Neutrality Events that lead the United States to war The United States Declares War The War Years; mobilization, public opinion, civil liberties (impact on American society) Wilson’s Fourteen Points

The World Moves Toward War The sequence of events leading from peace in Europe to the outbreak of a general war occurred with stunning rapidity: (1)Sarajevo, June 28, 1914: Serbian terrorist assassinates Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife (2)Vienna, July 23: The Austrian government issues an ultimatum threatening war against Serbia and invades that country for 4 days (3)Berlin, August 1: As Austria’s ally, the German government under Kaiser Wilhelm I declared war against Russia (ally of Serbia) (4)Berlin, August 3: Germany declares war against France, an ally of Russia (Germany invades neutral Belgium) (5)London, August 4: Great Britain, ally of France, declared war against Germany

The War began in Europe in 1914 for several reasons: Revival of imperialism Excessive nationalism Increasing militarism Secret diplomacy

The War Came as a Surprise for Most Americans… Most Americans were ignorant about European affairs – they were very “domestic-oriented.” The United States had acted as a major power by intervening in the Latin America and asserting an Open Door policy in China Yet, the U.S. held the tradition of not allying itself with any European power dating back to Washington and Jefferson President Wilson’s first response to the outbreak of war was therefore predictable- neutrality American Peace Society House is a Late Victorian house that was the headquarters of the American Peace Society from 1911 to 1948.

The World Divides The Allied Powers formed- Great Britain, France, and Russia The Central Powers formed- Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire/Turkey In a relatively short period of time ( ) the United States and its people rapidly moved through a wide range of roles: (1)Contented neutral country (2)A nation waging war for peace (3)A victorious world power (4)Finally, an alienated isolationist nation Map of the participants in World War I: Allied Powers in green, Central Powers in orange, and neutral countries in grey

Neutrality August 19, 1914: Wilson made a speech appealing to Americans to remain “impartial in thought as well as in action.” However, this was not accomplished due to the partisanship originating from the national origins of many Americans (German-Americans, Anglo- Americans, etc.) Even government policies would negate neutrality – by 1915 the U.S. was authorizing credits to the Allies. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan kept a close eye on America’s neutrality and the actions of other nations.

Problems with Britain Britain arbitrarily added U.S. shipping to the list of contraband goods making it impossible for neutral nations to carry any goods to the continent. The British claimed they had the right to take neutral vessels into British ports for searches. The British claimed the right to censor the mail they carried in addition to searches. Britain blockaded (mined) the North Sea, which Wilson complained interfered with freedom of the seas. British seizure of American ships was viewed as a violation of a neutral nation’s right to freedom of the seas.

Problems with Germany-Submarine Warfare In 1916, Germany announced the creation of a war zone around the British Isles to be patrolled by German submarines. President Wilson and Secretary of State W. J. Bryan disagreed on U.S. response to the German policy. American, British, and French ships were attacked First major crisis challenging U.S. neutrality was the sinking of the Lusitania (1)Gulflight May 1915, 3 dead (2)Lusitania May 1915; 128 dead (3)Arabic August 1915, 2 lives lost (4)Sussex March 1916, 3 dead 1915 painting depicting the sinking of Lusitania by the U-20.

Sussex Pledge A strong American ultimatum was sent to the Germans that if Germany did not at once discontinue unrestricted submarine warfare, the U.S. would sever diplomatic relations. The Sussex Pledge by Germany promised not to sink merchant or passenger ships without giving due warning Germany accepted the ultimatum but stipulated that the U.S. should take steps to halt illegal British acts as well. Wilson accepted the pledge but rejected the stipulation. For 8 months, there was no submarine activity against merchant and passenger vessels. Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink vessels such as freighters and tankers without warning, as opposed to attacks per prize rules

Economic Links with Britain and France Even though the U.S. was a neutral nation, its economy became closely tied to that of the Allied powers In early 1914, the U.S. had a slight recession but quickly rebounded with the outbreak of war Because Wilson tolerated the British blockade while resisting the German blockade, U.S. economic support favored the Allied powers In addition to economic support, bankers like J.P. Morgan extended as much as 3 billion in secured loans to Great Britain and France These loans maintained U.S. prosperity and sustained the Allies

Public Opinion Wilson’s policies unintentionally favored Britain and so did the attitudes of the majority of Americans The following factors swayed public opinion in favor of the Allies (1)Americans read in newspapers about the German atrocities and the mean spirited autocrat-Kaiser Wilhelm (2)The German sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 reinforced Americans’ attitudes (3)British war propaganda supported by American newspapers influenced public opinion By and large, public opinion was also influenced according to ethnic backgrounds (majority of native-born Americans wanted Britain and France to win)

The War Debate After the sinking of the Lusitania, a small but vocal minority of influential Republicans from the East argued for U.S. involvement against Germany The vast majority of Americans, however, were thankful for a booming economy and peace Eastern Republicans like T. Roosevelt were the first to recognize that the U.S. Army and Navy were hopelessly unprepared for a major war They clamored for “preparedness” soon after the European war broke out World War I era Navy recruiting poster, by artist Herbert Paus

Preparedness Leading the campaign was the National Security League which was organized by a group of business leaders to promote preparedness and to extend direct U.S. aid to the Allies At first President Wilson resisted the call for preparedness, but in late 1915, he changed his policy and urged Congress to act At first the Democrats were enraged by Wilson’s call to prepare, but after a nationwide speaking tour, Wilson convinced Congress to pass the National Defense Act (increased Army to 175,000 soldiers) A month later, Congress approved the construction of 50 warships War propaganda calling for a bigger Navy and recruitment

Opposition to War Many Americans, especially in the Midwest and West, opposed the preparedness fearing it would lead to U.S. involvement The antiwar activists included Populists, Progressives, and Socialists Leaders included: (1)Progressives- William Jennings Bryan, Jane Addams, and Jeannette Rankin (2)Woman suffragists actively campaigned against military buildup (after war was declared women groups were loyal to the war effort) Come on in, America, the Blood's Fine! (1917) by M.A. Kempf.

The Election of 1916 President Wilson was well aware of the 1912 split of the Republican party as one of the reasons for his victory Despite his own Progressive record, Wilson’s chances for reelection did not seem strong after T. Roosevelt declined the Progressive Party’s nomination for president in 1916 and rejoined the Republicans (T.R.’s decision virtually destroyed the Progressive party) Charles Evan Hughes became the presidential candidate of a reunited Republican party Charles Evan Hughes Woodrow Wilson

Electoral Vote Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Hughes/Fairbanks, Blue denotes those won by Wilson/Marshall. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each state.

“He kept us out of war.” The Democrats adopted as their campaign slogan: “He kept us out of war.” Wilson’s reelection was decided by the following three factors in a very close electoral and popular vote count (1)Peace sentiment in the nation (2)Wilson’s record of Progressive leadership (3)Hughes’ weakness as a candidate Democratic strength in the South and West had overcome Republican dominance in the East Wilson had campaigned for reelection in 1916 with the slogan, “He’s kept us out of war.”

Peace Efforts Wilson made repeated efforts to fulfill his party’s campaign promise to keep out of the war (1)before the election he sent his chief foreign policy advisor, Colonel Edward House, to negotiate a peace settlement (2)other missions were sent, but turned aside by both the Allies and Central Powers (3)in January of 1917, Wilson made a speech to the Senate declaring U.S. commitment to the idea of “peace without victory” Image of Wilson created by 21,000 soldiers at Camp Sherman, Chillicothe, Ohio, 1918

Decision for War In April 1917, President Wilson went before Congress to ask for a declaration of war against Germany What had happened to change his policy from neutrality to war? The most important reason for the U.S. decision for war was a sudden change in German military strategy- Unrestricted Submarine Warfare President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in official relations with Germany on 3 February 1917.

Immediate Causes For War A series of events would lead President Wilson to ask for war in 1917: Zimmerman Telegram: -U.S. newspapers carried the shocking news of a secret offer made by Germany to Mexico -the message proposed that Mexico ally itself with Germany in return for the lost territory of the American Southwest (Mexican Cession) -the Zimmerman Telegram aroused nationalist anger and convinced Wilson that Germany wanted war The Zimmerman Telegram as it was sent from Washington to Ambassador von Eckardt (who was in Mexico).

Immediate Causes For War continued… Russian Revolution: -Wilson wanted war to be fought for a worthy purpose: the triumph of democracy -Russia was an autocratic czarist nation, but when Russian revolutionaries overthrew the government and proclaimed a republic, Wilson applauded their ally’s change (communists eventually took the government months later) Renewed Submarine attacks: -in the first weeks of March, German subs sank five U.S. merchant ships Revolutionaries protesting on February 1917

Declaration of War On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to recognize a state of war existed between Germany and the U.S. His speech condemned Germany’s submarine policy as “warfare against mankind” and declared “the world must be safe for democracy” On April , Congress voted for a declaration of war President Wilson delivering his war message before Congress. April 2, 1917.

Mobilization Could the U.S. mobilize its vast economic resources fast enough to make a difference? Since it would take many months to train U.S. troops, the first American contributions to the Allies would be shipping needed supplies-rifles, gunpowder, and food Wilson created a number of war agencies that included: (1)The War Industries Board, established by Bernard Baruch set production priorities and established control over raw materials and prices Bernard Mannes Baruch was an American financier, stock investor, philanthropist, statesman, and political consultant. After his success in business, he devoted his time toward advising U.S. Presidents Woodrow Wilson and Franklin D. Roosevelt on economic matters

Mobilization continued… (2)Food Administration, established by Herbert Hoover, encouraged American households to eat less meat and bread to support the French and British troops (3) Fuel Administration, established by Harry Garfield, directed efforts to conserve coal (nonessential factories were closed, and daylight saving time went into effect for first time) (4) National War Labor Board, established by William Howard Taft, helped arbitrate disputes between workers and employers (wages rose, union membership increased) Food Administration – headed by Herbert Hoover, promoted “meatless Tuesdays and “wheatless Wednesdays,” and victory gardens.

Financing the War Paying for the war was a daunting task, so Wilson’s war government would manage to raise $33 billion in two years by a combination of loans and taxes (1)Four massive drives convinced Americans to buy Liberty Bonds to support the war (2)Congress increased both personal income and corporate taxes and placed a tax on luxury goods Raising Money for the War Effort

Public Opinion and Civil Liberties The U.S. government used techniques of both patriotic persuasion and legal intimidation to ensure public support for the war effort Progressive journalist George Creel took charge of a propaganda agency called the Committee on Public Information (enlisted artists, writers, vaudeville performers, and movie starts to depict heroism of the “boys” and the villainy of the Kaiser) Under Creel’s direction, films, posters, pamphlets, and volunteer speakers urged Americans to watch out for German spies and do their part to win the war "U.S. Official War Pictures", propaganda poster by Louis D. Fancher

War Hysteria and Patriotic Enthusiasm Too often, the fervor to maintain the war effort led to nativist groups taking out their frustration and prejudices on minorities One such group, the American Protective League, mounted “Hate the Hun” campaigns and used vigilante action to attack all things German Espionage and Sedition acts: -a number of socialists and pacifists criticized the government’s war policy prompting the passage of the Espionage Act in 1917 and the Sedition Act in 1918 An APL intelligence report sent to the U.S. government detailing pro- German statements

Espionage and Sedition Acts The Espionage Act provided for up to 20 years in prison for persons who either tried to incite rebellion in the armed forces or obstructed the operation of the draft The Seditions Act went much further by prohibiting anyone from making “disloyal” or “abusive” remarks about the U.S. government About 2,000 people were prosecuted-half were convicted Among those convicted was the Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs, who was sentenced to 10 years for speaking against the war Blessed are the Peacemakers by George Bellows, The Masses 1917

Were these acts Unconstitutional? Case of Schenck v. United States: The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act in a case involving a man who had been imprisoned for distributing pamphlets against the draft In 1919, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes concluded that the right to free speech could be limited when it represented a “clear and present danger” to public safety Ultimately, the Schenck v. United States case established the "clear and present danger" test, which lasted until 1969 when protection for speech was raised in Brandenburg v. Ohio to "Imminent lawless action".

Armed Forces As soon as war was declared,thousands of young men volunteered for military enlistment The largest amount of recruits was conscripted (drafted) into the army by a system requiring all men between 21 and 30 (later between 18 and 45) to register with the government Selective Service Act 1917: -a system of “selective service” was devised by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker was a democratic method for drafting men into service -Draftees provided over half the total of 4.7 million Americans who were issued uniforms during the war

Armed Forces continued… African Americans: -Racial segregation applied to the army as it did to civilian life -almost 400,000 African Americans served in WWI in segregated units -only a few were permitted to be officers and all were barred from the Marine Corps -W.E.B. Du Bois had hoped that African American service and fighting to “make the world safe for democracy” would lead to greater equality (he was bitterly disappointed) Officers of the 366th Infantry Regiment returning home from World War I service.

Effects on American Society All groups of American society-business and labor, women and men, immigrants and native-born-were required to adjust to the unusual demands of a wartime economy More jobs for women: -as men were drafted, women filled their jobs -their contributions convinced Wilson and Congress to support the 19 th Amendment Migration of Mexicans and African Americans: -job opportunities coupled with the Mexican Revolution caused thousands of Mexicans to cross the border for work (Southwest and Midwest) -African Americans also moved for job opportunities (North)

Fighting the War By the time the first U.S. troops were shipped overseas in late 1917, million of European soldiers on both sides had already been killed by artillery barrages, machine gun fire, and poison gas attack A second revolution in Russia by the Bolsheviks took that nation out of the war With no Eastern Front to divide its forces, Germany could now concentrate on an all-out push to break the Allied lines in France Two American soldiers run toward bunker.

Naval Operations Germany’s policy of unrestricted submarine warfare was having its desired effect Merchant ships bound for Britain were being sunk at a staggering rate prompting the U.S. Navy to implement a convoy system of armed escorts By the end of 1917, the system was working well enough to ensure that Britain and France would not be starved into submission An transatlantic convoy approaching Brest on 1 November Photograph taken from aboard USS Rambler

American Expeditionary Force The AEF was commanded by General John J. Pershing The first troops to see action were used to plug weaknesses in the French and British lines (by 1918, the AEF assumed independent responsibility on the Western Front) The Last German offensive: -enough U.S. troops were in place in the spring of 1918 to hold the line against the last German assault -at Chateau-Thierry on the Marne River, Americans stopped the German advance and struck back with a successful counterattack at Belleau Wood American Doughboys General John J. Pershing

Drive to Victory In August through October of 1918, an Allied offensive along the Meuse River and through the Argonne Forest succeeded in driving the Germans backward toward their border U.S. troops participated in this drive at St. Mihiel-the southern sector of the Allied line On November 11, 1918, the Germans signed an armistice in which they agreed to surrender their arms, give up much of their navy, and evacuate occupied territory U.S. combat deaths totaled nearly 49,000, but many more thousands would die of disease Total U.S. fatalities in WWI were 112,432 Images of the war

Making Peace During the war, President Wilson never lost sight of his ambition to shape the peace settlement when the war ended (1)January of 1917 he stated that the U.S. would seek “peace without victory” (2)A year later he presented Congress a detailed list of war aims known as the Fourteen Points Several of the president’s Fourteen Points related specifically to territorial questions ( the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France or German evacuation of Belgium) Newspapers in the United States followed Wilson’s 14 Points and the end of WWI

The Fourteen Points Of greater significance were the following broad principles for securing the peace: (1)Recognition of freedom of seas (2)An end to secret treaties (3)Reduction of national armaments (4)An “impartial adjustment of all colonial claims” (5)Self determination for the various nationalities within the Austro-Hungarian Empire (6)“A general association of nations” (League of Nations) The last point was the one that Wilson valued the most

Timeline World War I begins in Europe - Panama Canal opened Sinking of the Lusitania - Reelection of Woodrow Wilson in "He kept us out of war" campaign Mexican border campaign by U.S. Army - National Defense Act United States enters World War I Wilson announces 14 Points - World War I ends

Key Names, Events, and Terms Neutrality Submarine warfare Lusitania Sussex pledge Allied Powers Central Powers Propaganda Preparedness Jeannette Rankin Edward House Zimmerman Telegram Russian Revolution mobilization George Creel War agencies Espionage Act 1917 Sedition Act 1918 Schenck v. United States Selective Service Act Bolshevicks American Expeditionary Force (AEF) Fourteen Points

Question “German submarine warfare was the single most important factor in causing the U.S. to enter World War I.” Evidence supporting this position includes all of the following EXCEPT (a)the sinking of the Lusitania (b)the Zimmerman Telegram (c)the Sussex pledge (d)Wilson’s decision to break off diplomatic relations with Germany (e)Wilson’s war message to Congress, April 1917

Answer B: the Zimmerman Telegram