BLACK VICTIMS OF INTIMATE FEMICIDE IN UNITED STATES BY JANICE JOSEPH RICHARD STOCKTON COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY

Extent of Femicide in United States Femicide, the homicide of women, is the seventh leading cause of premature death for women in the United States Female homicide in the United States is three times more likely to be murdered than a female in Canada. Five times more likely to be murdered than a female in Germany, and eight times more likely to be murdered than a female in England and Wales (Hemenway, et al., 2002) U.S. female homicide victimization rate is five times that of all the other high income countries combined. Firearm homicide rate for U.S. females is 11 times higher than that in the other high income countries (Hemenway, et al., 2002)

Violence Policy Center Compiles annual reports on homicide incidents involving one victim and one perpetrator. Supplementary Homicide Report (SHR) data submitted to the FBI. The data is broken down by: state race and ethnicity murder weapon relationship between the victim and offender circumstances leading up to the murder. Used data from 2001 to 2010

A higher number of White women compared to Black women were murdered between

The Rate of Femicide/Homicide for Black Women was two times higher than that for White Women. X 2 =1310.1; significance at.001.

Black Women Were Killed Mainly By Acquaintances They Were Killed Mainly by Black Males The Most Common Weapon Was A Firearm They Were Killed Mainly During An Argument The Average Age of The Victim Was 35 Years Old

Most of the Black Women were Murdered in the Southern States

86% of Black women were Murdered in the Southern States

Risk Factors Individual Factors Age Socio-economic factors – unemployment, low income minority status problem drinking and illicit drug use weapons, primarily firearms (Bent-Goodley & Williams, 2004; Caetano, Nelson, & Cunrad, 2001). Relationship Variables Prior history of intimate violence Emotional and psychological abuse Leaving the intimate partner/ marital separation Dominance and control of the relationship by the male (Campbell, Glass, Sharps, Laughon, & Bloom, 2007; Campbell et al., 2003).

Risk Factors Community Factors Community poverty and associated factors (e.g., overcrowding) Weak community sanctions against intimate partner violence (e.g., police unwilling to intervene) (Campbell, et al., 2003; Bent-Goodley & Williams, 2004; Benson and Fox, 2004; Center for the Advancement of Women, 2006) Societal/cultural Factors Culture of silence Dual loyalty Music and Portrayal of Black Women (Bent-Goodley & Williams, 2004; Joseph, 1997).

Recommendations Policy Issues Culturally sensitive services using an Afrocentric approach instead of the Eurocentric perspective are needed Integrated services are, therefore, needed to provide holistic treatment for these individuals. A community-coordinated approach to the problem to provide a more effective way to deliver the services. Interventions designed specific for black women The concept of intimate partner violence needs to be redefined. as it relates to African Americans (Bent-Goodley & Williams, 2004).

Recommendations Prevention The root causes of this violence need to be addressed - racism, discrimination, economic inequity, etc. Early detection and intervention strategies must be used for Black families at risk. Black community has a responsibility to take ownership for preventing violence – church etc. Black community should create and maintain a multi- agency group of persons representing diverse sectors of the community

Recommendations Future Research There is the need for more comprehensive studies of protective and risk factors for the diverse groups of Black women. Community-based studies are needed that examine socioeconomic status variables. Studies that systematically examine the nature of support systems that function among Black families. Research should focus on developing and validating culturally sensitive assessment tools; (assessment is based on tools for Caucasian women). Interventions designed specific for black women. Future research is also needed that focuses on African American male perpetrators of intimate partner violence.

References Benson, M. L., & Fox, G. L. (2004). When violence hits home: How economics and neighborhood play a role. (National Institute of Justice Research in Brief No ). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. Bent-Goodley, T. B., & Williams, O. J. (2004). Community insights on domestic violence among African Americans: Conversations about domestic violence and other issues affecting their community. Retrieved December 23, 2008 from Community%20Insights.pdf Caetano, R., Nelson, S. & Cunradi, C. (2001). Intimate partner violence, dependence symptoms and social consequences from drinking among White, Black and Hispanic couples in the United States. American Journal on Addictions, 10, 60-9 Campbell, J.C., Webster, D., Koziol;McLain, J., Block, C., Campbell, D., Curry, M. A., Gary, F., Glass, N., McFarlane, J., Sachs, C., Sharps, P., Ulrich, Y., Wilt, S. A., Manganello, J., Xu, X., Schollenberger, J., Frye, V., & Laughon, K. (2003). Risk factors for femicide in abusive relationships: Results from a multisite case control study. American Journal of Public Health, 93(7),

References Center for the Advancement of Women. (2006). Violence against women. Retrieved December 31, 2008 from Against %20Women%20Report.pdf. Hemenway, D., Shinoda-Tagawa, T., & Miller, M. (2002). Firearm availability and female homicide victimization rates among 25 populous high income countries. Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association, 57(2), Joseph, J. (1997). Woman battering: A comparative analysis of Black and White women. In G. Kantor & J.L. Jasinski (Eds.), Out of darkness: Contemporary perspectives on family violence (pp ). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Violence Policy Center (2003). When men murder women: An analysis of 2001 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author. Violence Policy Center (2004). When men murder women: An analysis of 2002 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author Violence Policy Center (2005). When men murder women: An analysis of 2003 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author.

References Violence Policy Center (2006). When men murder women: An analysis of 2004 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author. Violence Policy Center (2007). When men murder women: An analysis of 2005 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author. Violence Policy Center (2008). When men murder women: An analysis of 2006 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author. Violence Policy Center (2009). When men murder women: An analysis of 2007 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author. Violence Policy Center (2010). When men murder women: An analysis of 2008 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author. Violence Policy Center (2011). When men murder women: An analysis of 2009 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author Violence Policy Center (2012). When men murder women: An analysis of 2010 homicide data. Washington, DC: Author