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 The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals  Leaders ◦ Persons with managerial and personal power who can influence others to perform actions beyond those that could be dictated by those persons’ formal (position) authority alone

◦ Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members  Managers ◦ Persons whose influence on others is limited to the appointed managerial authority of their positions  “Not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders”

MANAGERSLEADERS  Focus on things  Do things right  Plan  Organize  Direct  Control  Follows the rules  Focus on people  Do the right things  Inspire  Influence  Motivate  Build  Shape entities

Leadership Traits: Ambition and energyAmbition and energy The desire to leadThe desire to lead Honest and integrityHonest and integrity Self-confidenceSelf-confidence IntelligenceIntelligence High self- monitoringHigh self- monitoring Job-relevant knowledgeJob-relevant knowledge Leadership Traits: Ambition and energyAmbition and energy The desire to leadThe desire to lead Honest and integrityHonest and integrity Self-confidenceSelf-confidence IntelligenceIntelligence High self- monitoringHigh self- monitoring Job-relevant knowledgeJob-relevant knowledge Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from non- leaders.

 Honest — Display sincerity, integrity, and candor in all your actions. Deceptive behavior will not inspire trust.  Competent — Base your actions on reason and moral principles. Do not make decisions based on childlike emotional desires or feelings.  Forward-looking — Set goals and have a vision of the future. Effective leaders envision what they want and how to get it.  Inspiring — Display confidence in all that you do. By showing endurance in mental, physical, and spiritual stamina, you will inspire others to reach for new heights.

 Fair-minded — Show fair treatment to all people. Prejudice is the enemy of justice. Display empathy by being sensitive to the feelings, values, interests, and well-being of others.  Courageous — Have the perseverance to accomplish a goal, regardless of the seemingly insurmountable obstacles. Display a confident calmness when under stress.  Intelligent — Read, study, and seek challenging assignments.  Imaginative — Make timely and appropriate changes in your thinking, plans, and methods. Show creativity by thinking of new and better goals, ideas, and solutions to problems.

Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made.Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made. Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught.Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught. Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made.Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made. Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught.Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught. Behavioral Theories of Leadership Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Theories that attempt to isolate behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from ineffective leaders

 The Ohio State Studies sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior ◦ Initiating structure ◦ Consideration  The University of Michigan Studies sought to identify the behavioral characteristics of leaders related to performance effectiveness ◦ Employee oriented ◦ Production oriented

Initiating Structure The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal attainment. Consideration The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.

Employee-Oriented Leader Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members. Production-Oriented Leader One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

 The Leadership Grid ◦ Describes leadership style in term of concerns for production and people. These concerns reflect attitudes rather than actual behavior. ◦ Concern for production includes results, bottom-line performance, profits, and mission. ◦ Concern for people includes group members and coworkers. ◦ Best style is team management — at 9,9 on the Grid (high concern for both production and people).

Five key Grid combinations.  1/1 — low concern for production, low concern for people.  1/9 — low concern for production, high concern for people.  9/1 — high concern for production, low concern for people.  5/5 — moderate concern for production, moderate concern for people.  9/9 — high concern for production, high concern for people.  Draws on both studies to assess leadership style ◦ “Concern for People” is Consideration and Employee- Orientation ◦ “Concern for Production” is Initiating Structure and Production-Orientation

 While trait and behavior theories do help us understand leadership, an important component is missing: the environment in which the leader exists.  The effects of leader traits are enhanced by their relevance to situational contingencies.  Major situational contingency theories. ◦ Fiedler’s leadership contingency theory. ◦ Fiedler’s cognitive resource theory. ◦ Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model. ◦ House’s path-goal theory of leadership.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader. Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.

 Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale  Leaders who describe their least preferred coworker favorably (pleasant, smart, and so on) are “high LPC” and are considered more people-oriented.  “Low LPCs” describe least preferred coworkers unfavorably; they’re less people-oriented and more task-oriented.  Describe the person they least enjoyed working with.  If you describe the person you least able to work with in favorable terms – relationship-oriented  If you describe the person you least able to work with in unfavorable terms – task-oriented

Unfriendly Friendly Uncooperative Cooperative Hostile Supportive Guarded Open

Leader-Member Relations The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader. Position Power Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases. Task Structure The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

 Task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations that are very favorable to them and in situations that are very unfavorable to them.  Relationship-oriented leaders perform better in moderately favorable situations.

Research Support : Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals. Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people. Research Support : Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals. Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people. Cognitive Resource Theory A theory of leadership that states that stress can unfavorably affect a situation and that intelligence and experience can lessen the influence of stress on the leader.

 A refinement of Fielder’s original model: ◦ Focuses on stress as the enemy of rationality and creator of unfavorable conditions ◦ A leader’s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction to that stress  Stress Levels: ◦ Low Stress: Intellectual abilities are effective ◦ High Stress: Leader experiences are effective

 Situational leadership theory (SLT) ◦ Leaders should adjust their leadership styles— telling, selling, participating, and delegating—in accordance with the readiness of their followers  Acceptance: Leader effectiveness reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader  Readiness: A follower’s ability and willingness to perform  At higher levels of readiness, leaders respond by reducing control over and involvement with employees

◦ A model aims to provide a practical way for a leader to decide how to adapt his or her style to the task. ◦ Model focuses on four leadership styles:  The delegating style lets the members of the group decide what to do.  The participating style asks the members of the group what to do, but makes the final decisions.  The selling style makes the decision but explains the reasons.  The telling style makes the decision and tells the group what to do.

Leader: decreasing need for support and supervision Follower readiness: ability and willingness Unable and Unwilling Unable but Willing Able and Willing Directive High Task and Relationship Orientations Supportive Participative Able and Unwilling Monitoring

 The Theory: ◦ Leaders provide followers with information, support, and resources to help them achieve their goals ◦ Leaders help clarify the “path” to the worker’s goals ◦ Leaders can display multiple leadership types  Four types of leaders: ◦ Directive: focuses on the work to be done ◦ Supportive: focuses on the well-being of the worker ◦ Participative: consults with employees in decision- making ◦ Achievement-Oriented: sets challenging goals

◦ Directive leadership will have a positive impact on subordinates when tasks are ambiguous and the opposite effect when tasks are clear. ◦ Supportive leadership will increase the satisfaction of subordinates who work on tasks that are highly repetitive, unpleasant, stressful, or frustrating. ◦ Achievement-oriented leadership will encourage subordinates to strive for higher performance standards and to have more confidence in their ability to meet challenging goals when subordinates are working at ambiguous, non- repetitive tasks. ◦ Participative leadership will promote satisfaction on non- repetitive tasks that allow for the ego involvement of subordinates.

◦ Choices for adjusting leadership styles to meet situational contingency demands:

Leader behavior  Directive  Participative  Achievement-oriented  Supportive Environmental factors Task structure Formal authority system Work group Subordinate factors Locus of control Experience Perceived ability Outcomes  Performance  satisfaction