1. Natural Causes of Climate Change  Solar Variability  Volcanoes  Atmospheric Composition  Earth Surface Properties  Return Exam 3 For Next Class: Read Ch. 12 (pp. 371-373) & IPCC AR5 Ch. 2 (pp. 165-170) © AMS1

2. Spring 2016 Course Offerings Introduction to Physical Geography Global Climate Change Global Change of the Biosphere World Regional Geography Intro to Human Geography Cartographic Design & Analysis Geospatial Data and Technology Communicating Geographic Information Europe and the Russian Realm North Carolina Geography of the American South Weather and Climate Geography of Biodiversity Economic Geography Environmental Remote Sensing

3. Spring 2016 Course Offerings Spain and North Africa Intro to Quantitative Methods Introduction to GIS Advanced GIS Principals of Geocomputation Geographical Hydrology Town, City and Regional Planning Geospatial Data and Technology Planning Techniques Land Use Regulations Intro to Quantitative Methods Environmental Policy & Planning Community Development Senior Seminar

4. © AMS4 Driving Question  What forcing mechanisms can bring about climate change and climate variability over a broad range of time and spatial scales?

5. © AMS5  The complex spectrum of climate variability and climate change is a response to the interactions of many forcing agents and mechanisms operating both internally and externally relative to the Earth- atmosphere-land-ocean system

6. © AMS6  One way to organize our thinking on the many possible causes of climate change is to match a possible cause with a specific climate fluctuation based on similar periods

7. © AMS7 Global Radiative Equilibrium and Climate Change  Any change in either energy input or energy output will shift the Earth-atmosphere-land- ocean system to a new equilibrium and change the planet’s climate  Factors that can alter the global radiative equilibrium Fluctuations in solar energy output Fluctuations in solar energy output Changes in Earth’s orbit about the Sun Changes in Earth’s orbit about the Sun Volcanic eruptions Volcanic eruptions Variations in atmospheric chemistry Variations in atmospheric chemistry Alterations in Earth’s surface properties Alterations in Earth’s surface properties Certain human activities Certain human activities

8. © AMS8 Solar Variability and Climate Change  Sun’s total energy output at all wavelengths is not constant  Numerical global climate models predict that only a 1% change in the Sun’s energy output could significantly alter the mean temperature of the Earth-atmosphere- land-ocean system

9. © AMS9 Solar Variability and Climate Change  Sunspots Changes in solar energy output apparently are related to sunspot number Changes in solar energy output apparently are related to sunspot number More sunspots may contribute to a warmer global climate and fewer sunspots may translate into a colder global climate More sunspots may contribute to a warmer global climate and fewer sunspots may translate into a colder global climate

10. © AMS10 Solar Variability and Climate Change  Sunspots Typically lasts only a few days Typically lasts only a few days Number of sunspots varies systematically with time between successive sunspot maxima or minima Number of sunspots varies systematically with time between successive sunspot maxima or minima averaging about 11 yearsaveraging about 11 years

11. © AMS11 Solar Variability and Climate Change  Maunder Minimum and the Little Ice Age Sunspot activity greatly diminished during the 70- year period from 1645 to 1715 and coincided with a cold episode in Europe Sunspot activity greatly diminished during the 70- year period from 1645 to 1715 and coincided with a cold episode in Europe The magnitude of the variation in solar energy output during an 11-year solar cycle is so little that some amplification mechanism is required for sunspots to influence climate The magnitude of the variation in solar energy output during an 11-year solar cycle is so little that some amplification mechanism is required for sunspots to influence climate

12. © AMS12 Volcanoes and Climate Change  In violent eruptions, volcanoes discharge ash particles and sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, creating a veil that can cause cooling at Earth’s surface Must be a violent eruption, at low latitudes and rich in SO 2 Must be a violent eruption, at low latitudes and rich in SO 2 Mt. Pinatubo, June 1991

13. © AMS13 Volcanoes and Climate Change  By influencing the flux of radiation and attendant changes in global circulation patterns, the Pinatubo eruption was likely responsible for the cool summer of 1992 over continental areas of the Northern Hemisphere Temperature anomalies in the Midwest during June, July, and August 1992. (Following Mt. Pinatubo eruption)

14. © AMS14 Volcanoes and Climate Change  An eruption is unlikely to lower the mean hemispheric or global surface temperature by more than about 1.0 Celsius degree (for a year or two) although the magnitude of local and regional temperature change may be greater

15. © AMS15 Atmospheric Composition and Climate Change  Natural processes have played important roles in regulating levels of greenhouse gases and global climate Extinctions of plants and animals have been linked to increases in atmospheric CO 2 levels associated with massive volcanic eruptions Extinctions of plants and animals have been linked to increases in atmospheric CO 2 levels associated with massive volcanic eruptions Methane was an important contributor to post-glacial warming at high latitudes Methane was an important contributor to post-glacial warming at high latitudes Release from methane hydrates on the seafloorRelease from methane hydrates on the seafloor Emission from northern wetlands as temperatures roseEmission from northern wetlands as temperatures rose Thermokarst lakesThermokarst lakes

16. © AMS16 Earth’s Surface Properties and Climate Change  Snow and Ice Cover Changes in mean regional snow cover may contribute to climate variability and climate change. Changes in mean regional snow cover may contribute to climate variability and climate change. Fresh-fallen snowFresh-fallen snow typically reflects 80% or more of incident solar radiation, reducing the amount of solar heating and lowering the daily maximum air temperature.

17. © AMS17 Earth’s Surface Properties and Climate Change  Snow and Ice Cover Whereas changes in regional snow cover might impact climate variability over the short-term, changes in Earth’s sea ice or glacial ice coverage are likely to have longer-lasting effects on climate Whereas changes in regional snow cover might impact climate variability over the short-term, changes in Earth’s sea ice or glacial ice coverage are likely to have longer-lasting effects on climate Ice reflects much more incident solar radiation than either the ocean or snow-free land Ice reflects much more incident solar radiation than either the ocean or snow-free land Any change in glacial or sea ice cover would affect climateAny change in glacial or sea ice cover would affect climate

18. © AMS18 Earth’s Surface Properties and Climate Change  Shrinkage of Arctic Sea-Ice Cover Melting of floating sea ice does not raise sea level, but it can alter climate significantly Melting of floating sea ice does not raise sea level, but it can alter climate significantly Shrinkage of Arctic sea ice is likely to trigger an ice-albedo feedback mechanism that would accelerate melting of sea ice and amplify warming Shrinkage of Arctic sea ice is likely to trigger an ice-albedo feedback mechanism that would accelerate melting of sea ice and amplify warming

19. © AMS19 Earth’s Surface Properties and Climate Change  Shrinkage of Arctic Sea-Ice Cover Arctic sea ice cover varies seasonally and exhibits some long term trends Arctic sea ice cover varies seasonally and exhibits some long term trends In recent In recent years there has been a decline in the winter maximum extent of ice

20. © AMS20 Earth’s Surface Properties and Climate Change  Shrinkage of Arctic Sea-Ice Cover After 2000, the rate of After 2000, the rate of reduction of Arctic sea ice cover accelerated The end-of-summer ice extent reached a record low in 2007 The end-of-summer ice extent reached a record low in 2007 If current trends continue, by 2037 the Arctic Ocean may be free of sea ice in the summer If current trends continue, by 2037 the Arctic Ocean may be free of sea ice in the summer

21. © AMS21 Earth’s Surface Properties and Climate Change  Sea-Surface Temperature Pattern Changes in ocean circulation and sea-surface temperatures contribute to large-scale climate change and climate variability Changes in ocean circulation and sea-surface temperatures contribute to large-scale climate change and climate variability Some climate shifts can be abrupt, occurring in a decade or lessSome climate shifts can be abrupt, occurring in a decade or less